G20 Socio-Economic Rights Barometer

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8 INDIA 

8.1 Right to Education

Score: 3/5 – Legal protection present; access improving, but large groups underserved or quality is uneven.

India recognises education as a right (free and compulsory 6–14 years), and enrolment at primary/secondary is generally high. However, learning outcomes are uneven and recovery from pandemic setbacks remains partial.

The Annual Status of Education Report (ASER) shows foundational gaps: only 20.5% of Grade 3 children could read a Grade 2 text in 2022 (improving in 2024 to 27% but still low), and Grade 5 reading and arithmetic are recovering but below desirable levels, indicating quality disparities by school type and geography.

8.2 Right to Health 

Score: 3/5 – Legal right recognised; partial coverage with barriers.

India has made major gains in maternal and child health, supported by the expansion of public insurance schemes such as Ayushman Bharat – Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya Yojana (PM-JAY) and the continued reach of government health facilities.

According to the Sample Registration System (SRS) Special Bulletin on Maternal Mortality 2019–21, the maternal mortality ratio (MMR) fell to 93 per 100,000 live births, a sharp decline from 130 in 2014–16 (Registrar General of India, 2023).

A Press Information Bureau release in May 2025 confirmed further progress, highlighting that India’s reduction in maternal and child mortality outpaces global averages, with eight states already meeting the SDG target of MMR ≤70 (MoHFW, 2025).

The infant mortality rate declined from 39 per 1,000 live births in 2014 to 27 in 2021, while neonatal mortality fell from 26 to 19 per 1,000 in the same period (MoHFW, 2025). Life expectancy has risen to 72 years in 2023 (World Bank, 2024).

Despite these improvements, inequalities persist between states and between urban and rural areas, with health infrastructure and human resources still stretched in many regions.

8.3 Right to Work & Decent Labour Conditions 

Score: 3/5 – Laws exist but weakly enforced; high unemployment or precarious work.

The official unemployment rate (usual status) was 3.2% in 2022–23, but this sits alongside very high informality and precarious work. Reforms (four Labour Codes, including the Code on Wages) are enacted in law but not yet fully implemented, and union freedoms are constrained: the ITUC Global Rights Index rates India “5 – No guarantee of rights”.

Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS) data also show women’s labour force gains from a low base amid quality-of-work concerns. On balance: legal framework exists, yet enforcement and conditions lag. 

8.4 Right to Social Security

Score: 3/5 – Legal basis but limited coverage; major gaps remain.

Social protection has expanded (e.g., health insurance, pensions, transfers), and the ILO’s World Social Protection Report 2024–26 documents rising coverage; the Government cites ILO estimates that effective cash-based social coverage rose from 24.4% (2021) to 48.8% (2024), while broader benefits (not necessarily cash-based, but at least one benefit) are provided to around 65% of the population as of 2025.

Even so, adequacy is mixed and exclusion persists in the informal sector.

8.5 Right to Housing 

Score: 3/5 – Legal right recognised; major housing shortages or affordability crises.

India faces substantial urban informality. While UN-Habitat/World Bank show that around 5% of the national population live in slums, they also show that up to 18% of urban residents live in slum-like conditions (latest official series), while tenant protection modernisation via the Model Tenancy Act (2021) depends on state adoption (still limited).

Government programmes have scaled, with PMAY-Urban reporting 9.4 million homes completed as of the latest dashboard, but large needs remain in fast-growing cities and for affordability. Overall, legal/policy frameworks exist, yet shortages and informality remain pronounced.

8.6 Right to Food & Water 

Score: 3/5 – Legal recognition but food insecurity or water shortages affect many.

Food and nutrition outcomes have improved but remain a concern: undernourishment (FAO/World Bank indicator) remains elevated by global G20 standards, and child malnutrition (NFHS-5) is significant (stunting, wasting, underweight).

Safely managed sanitation reached 52% (2022) and drinking-water access is improving, but safely managed water is not yet universal and rural/poor gaps persist per JMP. In short, meaningful progress with sizable deficits.

Overall score (India): 3/5

India demonstrates steady progress but only partial realisation of socio-economic rights. Education and health indicators have improved, with declining maternal and child mortality and recovery in learning outcomes, yet quality and equity gaps remain pronounced across regions and social groups. The labour market is characterised by extensive informality and constrained union rights despite a formal legal framework. Social protection has expanded, but adequacy and effective reach are uneven, particularly for informal workers. Housing access and affordability remain pressing issues despite large-scale government programmes, while food security and WASH indicators show persistent deficits compared to G20 peers. Overall, India illustrates legal recognition and notable advances, but entrenched disparities and implementation challenges prevent a higher score.

References

ASER Centre. 2022. ASER 2022: National Findings. [Online] Available at: https://img.asercentre.org/docs/ASER%202022%20report%20pdfs/All%20India%20documents/aser2022nationalfindings.pdf [accessed: 5 September 2025]. 

ASER Centre. 2024. ASER 2024: National Findings (Slides). [Online] Available at: https://asercentre.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/ASER-2024-All-India-ppt-Jan-27-11am.pdf [accessed: 5 September 2025]. 

Government of India, Ministry of Education. N.d. Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act (RTE). [Online] Available at: https://www.education.gov.in/rte [accessed: 5 September 2025]. 

Government of India, Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation. 2023. PLFS, July 2022–June 2023: Press Note. [Online] Available at: https://dge.gov.in/dge/sites/default/files/2023-10/Press_Note_on_PLFS_JULY_2022_JUNE_2023.pdf [accessed: 5 September 2025]. 

IIPS & ICF. 2022. NFHS-5 (2019–21): India National Fact Sheet. [Online] Available at: https://dhsprogram.com/pubs/pdf/OF43/India_National_Fact_Sheet.pdf  [accessed: 5 September 2025]. 

India rating referenced via: Labour Rights Index. 2024. India Country Note, stating ITUC score of 65 out of 100. [Online] Available at: https://labourrightsindex.org/lri-2024-documents/india.pdf [accessed: 5 September 2025]. 

International Labour Organization. 2024. World Social Protection Report 2024–26. [Online] Available at: https://www.ilo.org/sites/default/files/2024-09/WSPR_2024_EN_WEB_1.pdf [accessed: 5 September 2025]. 

International Trade Union Confederation (ITUC). 2024. ITUC Global Rights Index 2024. [Online] Available at: https://www.ituc-csi.org/ituc-global-rights-index-2024  [accessed: 5 September 2025].

International Trade Union Confederation (ITUC). 2025. Global Rights Index 2025. [Online] Available at: https://www.ituc-csi.org/IMG/pdf/en__global_right_index_2025__final_web.pdf?42561/2dadb6a0c1eacc71d32d3f2f6ef8702cb163d152bd2dc8e5cc9ae3e96e031476 [accessed: 17 September 2025].

Ministry of Health and Family Welfare (MoHFW). 2025. India witnesses a steady downward trend in maternal and child mortality towards achievement of SDG 2030 targets. [Online] Available at: https://www.pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=2128024 [accessed: 17 September 2025].

Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs. N.d. PMAY-Urban Dashboard. [Online] Available at: https://pmaymis.gov.in/ [accessed: 5 September 2025]. 

Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs. 2021. Model Tenancy Act, 2021 (Official text). [Online] Available at: https://mohua.gov.in/upload/whatsnew/60b7acb90a086Model-Tenancy-Act-English-02.06.2021.pdf [accessed: 5 September 2025]. 

Press Information Bureau. 2025. ‘India’s social protection coverage doubles…’. [Online] Available at: https://www.pib.gov.in/PressReleaseIframePage.aspx?PRID=2115391  [accessed: 5 September 2025]. 

WHO/UNICEF JMP. N.d. India WASH Country Page. [Online] Available at: https://washdata.org/countries/india [accessed: 5 September 2025]. 

World Bank. N.d. Life expectancy at birth – India. [Online] Available at: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.LE00.IN?locations=IN [accessed: 5 September 2025]. 

World Bank. N.d. Population living in slums (% of urban population) – India. [Online] Available at: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/EN.POP.SLUM.UR.ZS?locations=IN [accessed: 5 September 2025]. 

World Bank. N.d. People using safely managed sanitation services (% of population) – India. [Online] Available at: https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/share-using-safely-managed-sanitation [accessed: 5 September 2025].

World Bank. N.d. Prevalence of undernourishment (% of population) – India. [Online] Available at: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SN.ITK.DEFC.ZS?locations=IN [accessed: 5 September 2025]. 

World Bank/WHO. N.d. Universal Health Coverage – Service Coverage Index (UHC SCI): India. [Online] Available at: https://data.who.int/countries/356 [accessed: 5 September 2025]. 

9 INDONESIA

9.1 Right to Education

Score: 3 – Legal protection present; access improving, but large groups still underserved or quality is uneven.

Education is compulsory from ages 7 to 15, and enrolment at primary level is nearly universal. Youth literacy is high at 99% (UNESCO, 2024). Yet quality and equity are uneven: in PISA 2022, 18% of students attained at least Level 2 proficiency in mathematics, far below the OECD average (OECD, 2024).

Rural–urban disparities, teacher shortages, and dropout rates after lower secondary remain significant.

9.2 Right to Health

Score: 3 – Legal right recognised; partial coverage with barriers.

The UHC service coverage index is 63/100 (World Bank/WHO, 2021), reflecting progress but uneven reach. Life expectancy has risen to 71.8 years (2022), but the maternal mortality ratio is high at 189 per 100,000 live births (2020) (World Bank, 2024a, 2024b).

Access is particularly challenging in rural and island communities, and out-of-pocket medical costs remain burdensome.

9.3 Right to Work & Decent Labour Conditions

Score: 3 – Laws exist but weakly enforced; high unemployment or widespread precarious work.

Indonesia has a statutory minimum wage set by provinces, and ratified ILO core labour standards. However, informality is pervasive: 57% of workers were in informal employment in 2023 (ILO, 2023).

Unemployment is relatively low (5.5% in 2024), but youth unemployment is double that. Union rights are legally recognised but face restrictions in practice, reflected in the ITUC’s rating of “4 – Systematic violations of rights”.

9.4 Right to Social Security

Score: 2 – Minimal, poorly funded schemes and narrow reach.

Social protection has expanded through the BPJS health and employment schemes, but overall coverage is limited.

The ILO (2024) estimates only 31% of Indonesians are effectively covered by at least one social protection benefit, leaving the majority without meaningful protection. Programmes are fragmented, and adequacy is low, particularly for informal workers.

9.5 Right to Housing

Score: 2 – Large portions of population in inadequate/informal housing; weak protections.

Indonesia faces significant housing challenges: UN-Habitat estimates that over 20% of the urban population lives in slum-like conditions (World Bank, 2024c). While the government has pursued large-scale housing initiatives, affordability remains limited and evictions from informal settlements have been reported by civil society organisations.

9.6 Right to Food & Water

Score: 3 – Legal recognition but food insecurity or water shortages affect many.

Food security remains fragile: FAO estimates 6.5% of the population was undernourished in 2022 (FAO, 2023). Child stunting is high at 21.6% (UNICEF/WHO/World Bank, 2023).

Access to basic drinking water is widespread, but only 91% of households used safely managed drinking water and 78% had safely managed sanitation in 2022 (UN-Water/WHO/UNICEF JMP, 2023). Disparities remain large between provinces and between rural and urban areas.

Overall score (Indonesia): 2.7 / 5

Indonesia’s composite profile yields an overall score of 2.7 / 5, reflecting mid-range but uneven rights realisation. The legal framework for education and health is well established and participation in schooling and basic healthcare has expanded. Yet serious challenges remain: weak learning outcomes, high maternal mortality, widespread informality in work, and major gaps in social protection. Housing and sanitation deficits particularly affect the urban poor and rural communities. Progress in access has been real, but persistent structural inequities and limited institutional capacity keep overall rights enjoyment constrained.

References

FAO. 2023. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2023. [Online] Available at: https://www.fao.org/publications/sofi/2023/en/ [accessed: 6 September 2025].

ILO. 2023. ILOSTAT – Informal employment by country: Indonesia. [Online] Available at: https://ilostat.ilo.org/data/ [accessed: 6 September 2025].

ILO. 2024. World Social Protection Report 2024–26. [Online] Available at: https://www.ilo.org/sites/default/files/2024-09/WSPR_2024_EN_WEB_1.pdf  [accessed: 6 September 2025].

ITUC. 2024. ITUC Global Rights Index 2024. [Online] Available at: https://www.ituc-csi.org/ituc-global-rights-index-2024 [accessed: 6 September 2025].

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). 2024. Education GPS – Indonesia: Student performance (PISA 2022). [Online] Available at: https://gpseducation.oecd.org/CountryProfile?primaryCountry=IDN&treshold=10&topic=PI [accessed: 4 September 2025]. 

UNESCO. 2024. World Education Statistics 2024. [Online] Available at: https://inee.org/sites/default/files/resources/World-Education-Statistics-2024.pdf [accessed: 4 September 2025].

UNICEF/WHO/World Bank. 2023. Joint Child Malnutrition Estimates – Country profile: Indonesia. [Online] Available at: https://data.unicef.org/resources/jme/ [accessed: 6 September 2025].

UN-Water/WHO/UNICEF JMP. 2023. Progress on household drinking water, sanitation and hygiene 2000–2022 – Indonesia tables. [Online] Available at: https://washdata.org/data [accessed: 6 September 2025].

World Bank. 2024a. Maternal mortality ratio (modelled estimate, per 100,000 live births) – Indonesia. [Online] Available at: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.STA.MMRT?locations=ID [accessed: 6 September 2025].

World Bank. 2024b. Life expectancy at birth, total (years) – Indonesia. [Online] Available at: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.LE00.IN?locations=ID [accessed: 6 September 2025].

World Bank. 2024c. Population living in slums (% of urban population) – Indonesia. [Online] Available at: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/EN.POP.SLUM.UR.ZS?locations=ID [accessed: 6 September 2025].

World Bank/WHO. 2021. Tracking Universal Health Coverage: 2021 Global Monitoring Report. [Online] Available at: https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240040618 [accessed: 6 September 2025].

10 ITALY

10.1 Right to Education

Score: 4 – Strong laws and high enrolment; disparities remain.

Education is compulsory from 6–16 and guaranteed in national law; participation at primary/lower-secondary is near-universal (Eurydice, 2025; UIS, 2025).

Learning outcomes remain uneven, though. PISA 2022 places Italy close to the OECD average in mathematics, above average in reading and below in science, with persistent regional (north–south) and socio-economic gaps; early school leaving fell to 10.5% in 2023 (OECD, 2023a).

10.2 Right to Health

Score: 4 – Good system with broad coverage; some inequalities in access/outcomes.

The universal SSN delivers broadly strong outcomes, with life expectancy around 83 years in 2023 (rose to 83.4 in 2024 per ISTAT, 2025; Reuters, 2025; World Bank, 2025a).

Very low maternal mortality (5 per 100,000) (World Bank, 2025b). Italy’s UHC service coverage index is high (84.1) for 2021 (World Bank/WHO, 2025).

Persistent issues include regional access/wait-time disparities noted in comparative assessments. 

10.3 Right to Work & Decent Labour Conditions

Score: 3 – Laws exist but weakly enforced; high unemployment or widespread precarious work.

Legal protections and collective bargaining are established, but the labour market remains dualised. Unemployment fell to 6.0% in July 2025 (youth 18.7%), yet precarious/temporary work and regional gaps persist (ISTAT/Eurostat reporting; OECD, 2023b; Reuters, 2025).

10.4 Right to Social Security

Score: 4 – Strong system, broad coverage; adequacy issues for some.

Italy spent 21.1% of GDP on social protection in 2023 (Eurostat, 2025). The anti-poverty Reddito di Cittadinanza was replaced by Assegno di Inclusione from 1 January 2024, tightening eligibility criteria (INPS, 2025; Ministry of Labour and Social Policies, 2024).

Coverage is broad, but adequacy/exclusion concerns, especially for some working-age adults and informal workers, temper the score. 

10.5 Right to Housing

Score: 3 – Legal right recognised; major housing shortages or affordability crises.

Affordability pressures and limited social housing capacity continue. Eurostat’s housing cost overburden datasets show non-trivial shares of households spending >40% of income on housing (national and by tenure/age/urbanisation), with marked variation, and recent European overviews also note rising homelessness/energy-cost stress.

The best consolidated national estimate for homelessness is 96,200 people (2021) from the OECD country note (based on the Permanent Census), highlighting a remaining need despite protections. 

10.6 Right to Food & Water

Score: 5 – Universal safe water and adequate nutrition; strong protections.

Italy has near-universal safely managed water and sanitation per the JMP country page and related tables; undernourishment is <2.5% (FAO reporting convention). While food-bank demand rose during inflation spikes, national systems secure universal access overall. 

Overall score (Italy): 3.8 / 5 

Italy demonstrates a well-developed framework of rights and social guarantees, with overall good outcomes but unevenness across regions and population groups. The education system is comprehensive and participation strong, yet persistent north–south and socio-economic gaps in achievement hold back a higher score. The national health service secures broad coverage with excellent life expectancy and very low maternal mortality, though waiting times and regional disparities remain. Labour protections are solid in law, but high levels of precarious and temporary work – especially for younger workers – undermine fairness and security. Social security spending is significant and inclusive, but adequacy issues remain for certain groups, particularly informal workers. In housing, affordability pressures and homelessness highlight clear gaps despite legal recognition of the right. By contrast, access to safe water and nutrition is effectively universal and well protected.

References 

EACEA/European Commission. 2025. YouthWiki – Italy: 6.3 Preventing early leaving from education and training (ELET). [Online] Available at: https://national-policies.eacea.ec.europa.eu/youthwiki/chapters/italy/63-preventing-early-leaving-from-education-and-training-elet [accessed: 18 September 2025]. 

EACEA/European Commission, Eurydice. 2025. Organisation of the education system and of its structure – Italy. [Online] Available at: https://eurydice.eacea.ec.europa.eu/eurypedia/italy/organisation-education-system-and-its-structure [accessed: 18 September 2025]. 

Eurostat. N.d. Housing cost overburden rate – datasets. [Online] Available at:

• ilc_lvho07a: https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/product/view/ilc_lvho07a

• ilc_lvho07c: https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/product/view/ilc_lvho07c

• ilc_lvho07d: https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/product/view/ilc_lvho07d

  [all accessed: 18 September 2025]. 

Eurostat. 2025. Government expenditure on social protection – Statistics Explained. [Online] Available at: https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php/Government_expenditure_on_social_protection [accessed: 18 September 2025]. 

INPS. 2025. Assegno di Inclusione (ADI). [Online] Available at: https://www.inps.it/it/it/dettaglio-scheda.it.schede-servizio-strumento.schede-servizi.assegno-di-inclusione-adi.html [accessed: 18 September 2025]. 

Ministry of Labour and Social Policies. 2024. Inclusion Allowance (Assegno di inclusione). [Online] Available at: https://www.lavoro.gov.it/g7-labour/new-measures-inclusion-and-work-access/pagine/inclusion-allowance [accessed: 18 September 2025]. 

OECD. 2023a. PISA 2022 Results – Country Note: Italy. [Online] Available at: https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/pisa-2022-results-volume-i-and-ii-country-notes_ed6fbcc5-en/italy_2e8d98df-en.html; PDF: https://www.oecd.org/content/dam/oecd/en/publications/reports/2023/11/pisa-2022-results-volume-i-and-ii-country-notes_2fca04b9/italy_8c8fa86f/2e8d98df-en.pdf [accessed: 18 September 2025]. 

OECD. 2023b. OECD Employment Outlook 2023 – Italy (country note/section). [Online] Available at: https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/oecd-employment-outlook-2023_08785bba-en/full-report/italy_7f527636.html [accessed: 18 September 2025]. 

OECD. 2024. Data on Homelessness 2024 – Country Note: Italy. [Online] Available at: https://www.oecd.org/content/dam/oecd/en/publications/reports/2024/11/data-on-homelessness-2024-country-notes_d0959ab4/italy_77072fe7/934f3b19-en.pdf [accessed: 18 September 2025]. 

Our World in Data. 2024. Prevalence of undernourishment (FAO series). [Online] Available at: https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/prevalence-of-undernourishment  [accessed: 18 September 2025]. 

Reuters. 2025. Italy July jobless rate falls to 6.0%, with 13,000 jobs created. [Online] Available at: https://www.reuters.com/markets/europe/italy-july-jobless-rate-falls-60-with-13000-jobs-created-2025-09-01/ [accessed: 18 September 2025]. 

UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS). 2025. Italy – Country profile (Education). [Online] Available at: https://uis.unesco.org/en/country/it [accessed: 18 September 2025]. 

WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP). 2025. Italy – WASH country page. [Online] Available at: https://washdata.org/countries/italy [accessed: 18 September 2025]. 

World Bank. 2025a. Life expectancy at birth, total (years) – Italy (Indicator SP.DYN.LE00.IN). [Online] Available at: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.LE00.IN?locations=IT [accessed: 18 September 2025]. 

World Bank. 2025b. Maternal mortality ratio (per 100,000 live births) – Italy (Indicator SH.STA.MMRT). [Online] Available at: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.STA.MMRT?locations=IT [accessed: 18 September 2025]. 

World Bank/WHO. 2025. UHC Service Coverage Index (SDG 3.8.1) – (Indicator SH.UHC.SRVS.CV.XD) (latest Italy data: 2021). [Online] Available at: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.UHC.SRVS.CV.XD [accessed: 18 September 2025]. 

11 JAPAN

11.1 Right to Education

Score: 4 – Strong laws and high enrolment; disparities remain.

Japan guarantees nine years of compulsory education (primary and lower-secondary), with very high participation and near-universal youth literacy; upper-secondary enrolment at age 17 is among the highest in the OECD (MEXT, N.d.; OECD, 2024a; UIS, 2025).

PISA 2022 shows strong performance – 88% of students at least Level 2 in mathematics (vs OECD 69%), but equity challenges and regional/SES gaps persist despite overall high attainment (OECD, 2024a). 

11.2 Right to Health

Score: 5 – Universal, affordable health care with strong legal guarantees; excellent outcomes.

Japan’s statutory system provides universal coverage in law and practice. Health outcomes are world-class: life expectancy is 84 years (2023); maternal mortality is among the lowest globally; and a high UHC service coverage index (83/100, 2021). Persistent issues include regional access and ageing-related pressures, but performance remains excellent (JETRO, N.d.; World Bank, 2025). 

11.3 Right to Work & Decent Labour Conditions

Score: 4 – Solid framework and generally fair conditions; enforcement gaps or informal sector issues.

Unemployment is very low (2.3%, July 2025), and collective bargaining and minimum wages are established in law; a record national-average minimum-wage hike to ¥1,118/hour is being finalised for FY2025. Yet labour-market dualism and non-regular work remain significant – especially for women – with associated wage and security gaps.

Unionisation is modest (16.1%), and certain public-safety workers (e.g., firefighters) are excluded from organising. Overall protections are solid, but gaps in job quality and coverage temper the score (ITUC, 2024; OECD, 2024b; Reuters, 2025; Statistics Bureau of Japan, 2025). 

11.4 Right to Social Security

Score: 4 – Strong coverage but some groups excluded or benefits insufficient.

Japan operates comprehensive social insurance (pensions, health, unemployment, long-term care) with universal participation requirements; child allowance was expanded from October 2024 (income cap removed; coverage extended to end of high school; higher amounts for 3rd+ child). Nonetheless, relative poverty – especially among single-parent and elderly households – remains high by OECD standards, pointing to adequacy gaps in parts of the system (government and municipal notices; Japan Pension Service, 2025; JETRO, N.d.; OECD, 2024b). 

11.5 Right to Housing

Score: 4 – Good housing access for most; affordability challenges or regional disparities remain.

Japan combines broad housing availability with very low homelessness (official point-in-time counts: 3,065 in 2023; 2,591 in January 2025, continuing decline). Affordability pressures persist for low-income renters, especially in large metros, as reflected in OECD affordable-housing indicators; social-rental supply is limited relative to need. Protections exist, but the burden on vulnerable groups keeps this at 4 (Nippon.com, 2025 – summarising MHLW survey; OECD AHD, 2024). 

11.6 Right to Food & Water

Score: 5 – Universal access to safe water and adequate nutrition; strong protections and positive outcomes.

Household access to safely managed drinking water and improved sanitation is essentially universal per the WHO/UNICEF JMP; undernourishment is very low and child malnutrition indicators are among the best in the region (Global Nutrition Report, 2024; WHO/UNICEF JMP, 2025). 

Overall score (Japan): 4.3 / 5

Japan performs strongly across all six rights. Universal health insurance and near-universal access to safe water and sanitation underpin world-leading health outcomes. Education laws and attainment are high with top-tier PISA results, though regional and socio-economic gaps persist. Labour protections are established and unemployment is low, yet labour-market dualism and gendered inequalities limit job quality for many non-regular workers. Social security is comprehensive and recent child-allowance reforms broaden coverage, but adequacy gaps remain for single-parent and older households. Housing supply helps keep recorded homelessness very low, while affordability pressures endure for low-income renters in large cities. With an ageing population, the priority is to strengthen equity and benefit adequacy within otherwise robust systems.

References 

Global Nutrition Report. 2024. Japan – Nutrition profile. [Online] Available at: https://globalnutritionreport.org/resources/nutrition-profiles/asia/eastern-asia/japan/ [accessed: 18 September 2025].

Government of Japan / Cabinet Secretariat. 2024–2025. Policies supporting children and child-rearing (child allowance reforms). [Online] Available at: https://japan.kantei.go.jp/ongoingtopics/policies_kishida/childsupport.html [accessed: 18 September 2025].

Higashihiroshima City. 2024. Revision of the Child Allowance System 2024 (English notice). [Online] Available at: https://www.city.higashihiroshima.lg.jp/en/8/40227.html [accessed: 18 September 2025].

ITUC. 2024. Global Rights Index 2024 – Overview. [Online] Available at: https://www.ituc-csi.org/gri-intro-2024 [accessed: 18 September 2025].

Japan Pension Service. 2025. National Pension System. [Online] Available at: https://www.nenkin.go.jp/international/japanese-system/nationalpension/nationalpension.html [accessed: 18 September 2025].

JETRO. N.d. Japan’s social security system. [Online] Available at: https://www.jetro.go.jp/en/invest/setting_up/section4/page9.html [accessed: 18 September 2025].

MEXT. N.d. Overview of the education system. [Online] Available at: https://www.mext.go.jp/en/policy/education/overview/index.htm [accessed: 18 September 2025].

Nippon.com. 2025. Government survey finds Japanese homeless population continues to decrease. [Online] Available at: https://www.nippon.com/en/japan-data/h02407/government-survey-finds-japanese-homeless-population-continues-to-decrease.html [accessed: 18 September 2025].

OECD. 2023. PISA 2022 Results – Country Note: Japan. [Online] Available at: https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/pisa-2022-results-volume-i-and-ii-country-notes_ed6fbcc5-en/japan_f7d7daad-en.html [accessed: 18 September 2025].

OECD. 2024a. Education at a Glance 2024 – Country Note: Japan. [Online] Available at: https://www.oecd.org/content/dam/oecd/en/publications/reports/2024/09/education-at-a-glance-2024-country-notes_532eb29d/japan_fb7f8db2/6ec65d8b-en.pdf [accessed: 18 September 2025].

OECD. 2024b. Economic Surveys: Japan 2024. [Online] Available at: https://www.oecd.org/content/dam/oecd/en/publications/reports/2024/01/oecd-economic-surveys-japan-2024_9289b572/41e807f9-en.pdf [accessed: 18 September 2025].

OECD Affordable Housing Database (AHD). 2024. HC1.2 Housing costs over income (method & indicators). [Online] Available at: https://webfs.oecd.org/els-com/Affordable_Housing_Database/HC1-2-Housing-costs-over-income.pdf [accessed: 18 September 2025].

OECD Affordable Housing Database (AHD). 2024. Country note: Homelessness – Japan. [Online] Available at: https://webfs.oecd.org/Els-com/Affordable_Housing_Database/Country%20notes/Homelessness-JPN.pdf [accessed: 18 September 2025].

Reuters. 2025. Japan plans another record hike in minimum wage, Kyodo News says. [Online] Available at: https://www.reuters.com/sustainability/sustainable-finance-reporting/japan-plans-another-record-hike-minimum-wage-kyodo-news-says-2025-08-01/ [accessed: 18 September 2025].

Statistics Bureau of Japan. 2025. Latest indicators – unemployment rate (July 2025). [Online] Available at: https://www.stat.go.jp/english/ [accessed: 18 September 2025].

UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS). 2025. Italy – Country profile (Education). [Online] Available at: https://www.unesco.org/sdg4education2030/en/knowledge-hub/japan-country-profile [accessed: 18 September 2025]. 

WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP). 2025. Japan – WASH country page. [Online] Available at: https://washdata.org/countries/japan [accessed: 18 September 2025].

World Bank. 2025. Life expectancy at birth, total (years) – Japan (Indicator SP.DYN.LE00.IN). [Online] Available at: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.LE00.IN?locations=JP [accessed: 18 September 2025].

World Bank. 2025. Maternal mortality ratio (per 100,000 live births) – Japan (Indicator SH.STA.MMRT). [Online] Available at: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.STA.MMRT?locations=JP [accessed: 18 September 2025].

World Bank. 2025. UHC service coverage index (SDG 3.8.1) – Japan (latest available 2021). [Online] Available at: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.UHC.SRVS.CV.XD?locations=JP [accessed: 18 September 2025].

12 MEXICO

2.1 Right to Education

Score: 4 – Strong laws and high enrolment; disparities remain.

Mexico constitutionally guarantees free, compulsory education from preschool through upper-secondary (and mandates State responsibility for higher education) establishing a solid de jure baseline. Enrolment in basic education is high (e.g., SEP reports net enrolment in primary at 95% and strong progression to lower-secondary).

However, learning outcomes remain a systemic challenge. In PISA 2022 only about a third (34%) of 15-year-olds met at least Level 2 in mathematics, with persistent performance gaps by socio-economic background and geography (OECD, 2023). 

12.2 Right to Health

Score: 4 – Broad coverage with some inequalities in access/outcomes.

Outcomes are mixed but broadly positive by upper-middle-income standards. Life expectancy rebounded to 75.1 years in 2023 after pandemic-era declines (FRED/World Bank, 2025), and maternal mortality has fallen to an estimated 42 per 100,000 live births in 2023 (World Bank, 2025a). 

The UHC service coverage index stands at 75/100 for 2021 (World Bank, 2025b). Current health expenditure is 5.7–6.1% of GDP (2021–2022). 

Following criticism of the short-lived INSABI scheme, the federal government initiated a transition to IMSS-Bienestar. This occurred in two stages: first, on 31 August 2022, the decentralised public body IMSS-Bienestar was formally created; second, on 29 May 2023, reforms to the General Health Law transferred functions and responsibilities to the new body.

12.3 Right to Work & Decent Labour Conditions

Score: 3 – Laws exist but are weakly enforced; widespread precarious/informal work.

Mexico’s open unemployment is low (2.8% in July 2025), but labour market informality remains very high (TIL1 at 54.8% in Q2 2025), undermining equal protections and benefits (INEGI, 2025).  Minimum wages have risen sharply – MXN 249.00/day nationally and MXN 375.00/day in the Northern Border Zone in 2025 (CONASAMI, 2024; DOF, 2022) – boosting earnings at the bottom, though enforcement is uneven in the informal sector.  Freedom of association has improved under recent labour reforms and USMCA enforcement, reflected in the ITUC Global Rights Index upgrade to rating “3 – Regular violations” in 2025 (from “4” in 2024).

12.4 Right to Social Security

Score: 3 – Legal basis but limited coverage; major gaps remain.

Mexico operates multiple contributory regimes (IMSS/ISSSTE) and non-contributory programmes, and is consolidating non-insured populations into IMSS-Bienestar (DOF, 2022). 

Yet coverage gaps remain large, driven by informality. In 2024, 48.2% of people experienced carencia por acceso a la seguridad social (lack of access to social security), per the official multidimensional poverty release (INEGI, 2025).  ILO data similarly place “effective coverage” below universal and note uneven adequacy. 

12.5 Right to Housing

Score: 2 – Large populations in informal/inadequate housing; weak protections.

The right to adequate housing is recognised and federal laws provide policy scaffolding (but not justiciable entitlements to affordability everywhere).  On conditions, UN-Habitat/World Bank estimate 17.6% of Mexico’s urban population lived in “slum” or informal conditions in 2018 – a level that signals persistent deficits in habitability, services, and tenure for millions (World Bank, 2025c). 

Affordability pressures (especially in large metros) and limited nationwide eviction-specific safeguards outside some local jurisdictions further constrain access.

12.6 Right to Food & Water

Score: 3 – Legal recognition but food insecurity or water/sanitation gaps affect many.

Mexico has near-universal basic drinking water access, but safely managed water and sanitation are not yet universal – national JMP series indicate continuing urban–rural and wealth gaps; services are often intermittent and bottled-water dependence is high (FAO/IFAD/PAHO/UNICEF/WFP, 2023; sector briefs; WHO/UNICEF JMP, 2025). 

Food security improved regionally in 2023; within Mesoamerica, Mexico recorded one of the lowest prevalences of moderate or severe food insecurity, 27.6%, but that still means over a quarter of people faced constrained access at times (FAO/IFAD/PAHO/UNICEF/WFP, 2023). 

Overall score (Mexico): 3.2 / 5

Mexico’s score reflects upper-mid performance but with persistent gaps. Strong legal guarantees underpin education and health, and enrolment and coverage levels are comparatively high. Recent reforms, including the transition to IMSS-Bienestar and labour law changes under USMCA, signal institutional strengthening. Yet structural weaknesses remain: entrenched informality undermines labour rights and social security coverage, housing deficits persist for millions in informal settlements, and water/food insecurity continues to affect vulnerable groups. Mexico demonstrates clear progress and legal commitment, but implementation gaps and uneven equity keep overall rights enjoyment moderate rather than high.

References 

Cámara de Diputados (vigente) Ley de Vivienda (texto consolidado). [Online] Available at: https://www.diputados.gob.mx/LeyesBiblio/pdf/LViv.pdf [accessed: 18 September 2025].

CONASAMI. 2024. Incremento a los salarios mínimos para 2025 (nota oficial). [Online] Available at: https://www.gob.mx/conasami/es/articulos/incremento-a-los-salarios-minimos-para-2025 [accessed: 18 September 2025].

DOF. 2022. Decreto por el que se crea el organismo público descentralizado IMSS-Bienestar. [Online] Available at: https://www.dof.gob.mx/nota_detalle.php?codigo=5658644&fecha=31/08/2022 [accessed: 18 September 2025].

Encuesta Nacional de Ocupación y Empleo (ENOE). 2025. Resultados del segundo trimestre de 2025 (boletín, indicador 433/25). [Online] Available at: https://www.inegi.org.mx/contenidos/saladeprensa/boletines/2025/enoe/enoe2025_08.pdf [accessed: 18 September 2025].

FAO/IFAD/PAHO/UNICEF/WFP. 2023. Latin America and the Caribbean – Regional Overview of Food Security and Nutrition 2023. [Online] Available at: https://openknowledge.fao.org/items/d5796653-42c5-4de3-915b-a4d58c1308c9 [accessed: 18 September 2025].

FRED/World Bank. 2025. Life Expectancy at Birth, Total for Mexico (SPDYNLE00INMEX) – 2023 value 75.069. [Online] Available at: https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/SPDYNLE00INMEX [accessed: 18 September 2025].

Gobierno de México. 2024. Tabla de salarios mínimos 2025. [Online] Available at: https://www.gob.mx/cms/uploads/attachment/file/960832/Tabla_de_Salarios_M_nimos_2025.pdf [accessed: 18 September 2025].

INEGI. 2025. Indicadores Oportunos de Ocupación y Empleo – Julio 2025 (boletín). [Online] Available at: https://www.inegi.org.mx/contenidos/saladeprensa/boletines/2025/iooe/IOE2025_08.pdf [accessed: 18 September 2025].

ITUC. 2025. Global Rights Index 2025. [Online] Available at: https://www.ituc-csi.org/global-rights-index; PDF: https://www.ituc-csi.org/IMG/pdf/en__global_right_index_2025__final_web.pdf [accessed: 18 September 2025].

OECD. 2023. PISA 2022 – Mexico factsheet. [Online] Available at: https://www.oecd.org/content/dam/oecd/en/publications/reports/2023/11/pisa-2022-results-volume-i-and-ii-country-notes_2fca04b9/mexico_515c0d35/519eaf88-en.pdf [accessed: 18 September 2025].

Reuters. 2024. México aumentará el salario mínimo un 12% desde enero de 2025. [Online] Available at: https://www.reuters.com/latam/negocio/PNXT6UTPXBNPVK7PWVHP6NGZVA-2024-12-04/ [accessed: 18 September 2025].

Secretaría de Salud / SEGOB. 2023. Acuerdo de bases para la transferencia de recursos y desincorporación por extinción del INSABI. [Online] Available at: http://sidof.segob.gob.mx/notas/5690905 [accessed: 18 September 2025].

WHO/UNICEF JMP. 2025. Mexico – WASH country page. [Online] Available at: https://washdata.org/countries/mexico [accessed: 18 September 2025].

World Bank. 2025a. Gender Data Portal. [Online] Available at: https://genderdata.worldbank.org/en/home [accessed: 18 September 2025].

World Bank. 2025b. Current health expenditure (% of GDP) – Mexico. [Online] Available at: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.XPD.CHEX.GD.ZS?locations=MX [accessed: 18 September 2025].

World Bank. 2025c. Population living in slums (% of urban population) – Mexico. [Online] Available at: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/EN.POP.SLUM.UR.ZS?locations=MX [accessed: 18 September 2025].

13 RUSSIAN FEDERATION

13.1 Right to Education

Score: 4 – Broad Protection: Strong laws and high enrolment; disparities remain.

Adult literacy is effectively universal and participation through upper-secondary is high in law and practice. Russia did not participate in PISA 2022, so recent lower-secondary benchmarks are missing; however, PIRLS 2021 (Grade 4) placed Russia among the very top performers in reading, signalling strong foundations in early literacy (IEA TIMSS & PIRLS, 2023; OECD, N.d.).

Regional and rural–urban gaps in resources and outcomes remain a recurring theme in the research literature. 

13.2 Right to Health

Score: 3 – Partial Protection: Good laws/coverage; outcomes uneven.

A statutory system provides broad entitlements and Russia’s UHC service coverage index sits in the mid/high-70s (2021). Key outcomes have been recovering since the pandemic: life expectancy rebounded into the low-mid 70s by 2023; maternal mortality is in low double digits per 100,000.

Yet total health spending as a share of GDP is modest by OECD standards, out-of-pocket burdens persist, and recent studies highlight substantial unmet need and rural access challenges (World Bank, 2025). 

13.3 Right to Work & Decent Labour Conditions

Score: 2 – Limited Protection: Laws exist but weakly enforced; high unemployment or widespread precarious work.

Headline unemployment has hovered near historic lows in 2024–2025 amid labour shortages, but this co-exists with severe constraints on freedom of association and collective action. The ITUC Global Rights Index rates Russia “5 – no guarantee of rights”, citing systematic violations.

Informal employment remains sizeable – recent research estimates about 18.3% of workers in 2023 in the informal sector – undermining equal protections (Interfax, 2025a; ITUC, 2024, 2025; Kiselev et al., 2024; Reuters, 2024). 

13.4 Right to Social Security

Score: 4 – Broad Protection: Strong coverage but some groups excluded or benefits insufficient.

Russia’s legislation spans pensions, family/child support, disability, unemployment insurance and targeted assistance, yielding high nominal coverage by international standards.

Regional inequalities and adequacy concerns have grown more salient with inflationary pressure; official data reported poverty at 7.2% for 2024, but analysts caution about vulnerability around the line (ILO WSPR, 2024–26 regional benchmarks; Interfax, 2025b). 

13.5 Right to Housing

Score: 3 – Partial Protection: Legal right recognised; major housing shortages or affordability crises.

Housing stock is extensive, but affordability worsened after the roll-back of broad mortgage subsidies in mid-2024, with market rates jumping and a marked deterioration in purchase affordability; government has kept a narrower “family mortgage” subsidy to soften the shock (Reuters, 2024; The Moscow Times).

At the same time, widespread winter heating and hot-water outages in 2023–2024 exposed ageing municipal infrastructure and left tens of thousands without heat for days in multiple regions (ABC News, 2024; DW, 2024; The Bell, 2024). 

13.6 Right to Food & Water

Score: 4 – Broad Protection: Broad access but disparities between groups or regions.

Undernourishment in Russia is low by global standards (FAO REU tables, 2025), though it rose compared with the late-2010s and remains below the world average.

Water and sanitation access is broadly high, but “safely managed” services are not universal and rural service quality lags behind urban areas (WHO/UNICEF JMP, 2025). 

Overall score (Russia): 3.3 / 5 

Russia presents a complex rights landscape. The country secures near-universal access to education and broad social protection coverage, with notable achievements in early literacy (IEA TIMSS & PIRLS, 2023) and extensive legal entitlements. However, these gains are offset by uneven outcomes: persistent rural-urban disparities in education and WASH, affordability and infrastructure crises in housing, and significant barriers to healthcare access despite legal guarantees. Labour rights remain the weakest dimension, with systemic restrictions on freedom of association and widespread informality undermining protections despite low headline unemployment. Overall, Russia’s profile is characterised by solid frameworks and coverage, but with material deficits in equity, adequacy, and rights implementation that limit its progression towards full realisation.

References

ABC News. 2024. Freezing Russians plead for help from Vladimir Putin as heating fail leaves them “fighting for survival”. [Online] Available at: https://www.abc.net.au/news/2024-01-21/freezing-russians-make-plea-to-vladimir-putin-after-heating-fail/103323062 [accessed: 18 September 2025].

DW. 2024. Why are many Russians freezing in their homes this winter? [Online] Available at: https://www.dw.com/en/why-are-many-russians-freezing-in-their-homes-this-winter/a-68025856 [accessed: 18 September 2025].

FAO et al. 2025. Europe and Central Asia – Regional Overview of Food Security and Nutrition 2024. [Online] Available at: https://openknowledge.fao.org/handle/20.500.14283/cd4739en [accessed: 18 September 2025]. 

IEA. 2023. PIRLS 2021 International Results in Reading. [Online] Available at: https://pirls2021.org/results/ [accessed: 18 September 2025].

Interfax. 2025a. Unemployment in Russia still at all-time low, labor shortage continues to decrease – CBR. [Online] Available at: https://interfax.com/newsroom/top-stories/111906/ [accessed: 18 September 2025].

Interfax. 2025b. Level of poverty in Russia falls to historic low of 7.2% in 2024 — Rosstat. [Online] Available at: https://interfax.com/newsroom/top-stories/110336/ [accessed: 18 September 2025].

ITUC. 2024. Global Rights Index 2024 – Country list & ratings. [Online] Available at: https://www.ituc-csi.org/russian-federation [accessed: 18 September 2025].

ITUC. 2025. Global Rights Index 2025 – Overview page. [Online] Available at: https://www.ituc-csi.org/ituc-global-rights-index-2025-en [accessed: 18 September 2025].

Kiselev, S.V., Seitov, S.K., Samsonov, V.A. & Filimonov, I.V. 2024. Employment in the informal sector of Russia: unemployment and other socio-economic factors, Population and Economics, 8(3): 197–219.

[Online] Available at: https://ideas.repec.org/a/arh/jpopec/v8y2024i3p197-219.html [accessed: 18 September 2025].

Nikoloski, Z., Sulcebe, G., Mossialos, E. & Cylus, J. 2024. Unmet need for healthcare in the Russian Federation. [Online] Available at: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11816418/ [accessed: 18 September 2025].

OECD. N.d. PISA Participants (past and present). [Online] Available at: https://www.oecd.org/en/about/programmes/pisa/pisa-participants.html  [accessed: 18 September 2025].

Reuters. 2024. Russia extends subsidised family mortgage programme until 2030. [Online] Available at: https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/russia-extends-subsidised-family-mortgage-programme-until-2030-2024-07-10/ [accessed: 18 September 2025]. 

The Bell. 2024. The Bell Weekly: A winter heating crisis strikes Russia. [Online] Available at: https://en.thebell.io/the-bell-weekly-30/ [accessed: 18 September 2025].

The Moscow Times. 2024. Russia’s real estate market rocked by the end of generous mortgage subsidies. [Online] Available at: https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2024/10/18/russias-real-estate-market-rocked-by-the-end-of-generous-mortgage-subsidies-a86738 [accessed: 18 September 2025].

WHO/UNICEF JMP. 2025. Russian Federation – WASH country page. [Online] Available at: https://washdata.org/countries/russian-federation [accessed: 18 September 2025].

World Bank. 2025. UHC service coverage index (SH.UHC.SRVS.CV.XD) – Russian Federation. [Online] Available at: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.UHC.SRVS.CV.XD?locations=RU  [accessed: 18 September 2025].

World Bank. 2025. Life expectancy at birth, total (years) – Russian Federation. [Online] Available at: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.LE00.IN?locations=RU [accessed: 18 September 2025].

World Bank. 2025. Maternal mortality ratio (per 100,000 live births) – Russian Federation. [Online] Available at: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.STA.MMRT?locations=RU [accessed: 18 September 2025].

World Bank. 2025. Current health expenditure (% of GDP) – Russian Federation. [Online] Available at: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.XPD.CHEX.GD.ZS?locations=RU [accessed: 18 September 2025].

14 SAUDI ARABIA

14.1 Right to Education

Score: 4/5 – Strong legal framework and high enrolment; disparities remain.

Basic education is guaranteed in law, and public schooling is free for citizens and residents. Participation through lower and upper-secondary is high on international series; secondary gross enrolment has exceeded 100% in recent years (UIS, 2023).

Learning outcomes, however, lag behind OECD levels. In PISA 2022 only a minority of 15-year-olds reached at least Level 2 in mathematics, pointing to persistent quality and equity gaps that national reforms aim to address (OECD, 2023). 

14.2 Right to Health

Score: 4/5 – Good system with broad coverage; some inequalities or shortfalls in access/outcomes.

Health indicators are strong for the region: life expectancy was around 79 years in 2023, and the UHC service coverage index stands in the mid-70s (2021) on the global SDG series (FRED / World Bank, 2025; World Bank, 2025).

Maternal mortality is low for an upper-middle/high-income setting (World Bank, 2025). Coverage is broad across national schemes, but access and affordability can vary for non-citizen groups and some services, and non-communicable diseases remain a policy priority (WHO/UNICEF JMP, 2025; World Bank, 2025). 

14.3 Right to Work & Decent Labour Conditions

Score: 2/5 – Minimal protections; exploitation common, rights to organise restricted.

Unemployment has fallen to historic lows (overall 2.8% in Q1 2025; Saudi citizens 6.3%) reflecting strong labour-market demand (GASTAT, 2025).

At the same time, independent trade unions and strikes are not legally recognised, and international monitoring continues to place the Kingdom in the worst-performing grouping for workers’ rights (ITUC, 2025). Credible reports in 2024–25 document ongoing risks for migrant workers despite reform initiatives (Amnesty International, 2025; BWI, 2025; HRW, 2025). 

14.4 Right to Social Security 

Score: 4/5 – Strong coverage but some groups excluded or benefits insufficient.

Citizens are covered by a wide social protection architecture (pensions, SANED unemployment insurance, disability and social assistance), and recent Social Insurance Law reforms were approved to consolidate and expand scheme design (GOSI, 2024). Nevertheless, gaps remain – particularly for many non-nationals’ old-age entitlements – and official SDG reporting shows coverage below universal levels (SDG 1.3.1). 

14.5 Right to Housing 

Score: 4/5 – Good housing access for most; affordability challenges or regional disparities remain.

The Housing Program reports homeownership rising to 63.74% (end-2023) and 65.4% (end-2024), surpassing the interim Vision 2030 target (SPA-carried releases). Progress reflects subsidised finance and supply programmes.

However, affordability pressures, especially in Riyadh, have intensified with rapid price growth, stretching lower- and middle-income households and some migrant groups (Financial Times, 2025). 

14.6 Right to Food & Water

Score: 4/5 – Broad access but disparities remain between groups or regions.

Access to at least basic drinking water services is very high (WHO/UNICEF JMP, 2025; World Bank, 2025), and undernourishment prevalence is low and stable at 3-4% on FAO/WB series (FAO, 2024; World Bank, 2025).

Service quality and the cost of healthy diets can still vary, with pockets of vulnerability among lower-income and non-citizen households. 

Overall score (Saudi Arabia): 3.7 / 5

In Saudi Arabia, rights are broadly recognised in law and delivered at scale, yet uneven in practice. The Kingdom has made significant progress in education access, health outcomes, and social protection for citizens, and flagship Vision 2030 programmes have driven gains in housing and employment participation. However, structural gaps remain: migrant workers experience persistent labour-rights violations and weaker social security protections; housing affordability and basic service access are uneven for low-income groups; and learning outcomes lag behind enrolment levels. The combination of ambitious reforms, high coverage rates, and continued exclusion or quality disparities positions Saudi Arabia as a country with strong institutional scaffolding but needing sustained efforts to improve adequacy, equity, and enforcement to achieve full realisation of socio-economic rights.

References

Amnesty International. 2025. Saudi Arabia/UN: Labour agreement must lead to comprehensive reforms to be a game-changer for migrant workers. [Online] Available at: https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2025/06/saudi-arabia-un-labour-agreement-must-lead-to-comprehensive-reforms-to-be-a-game-changer-for-migrant-workers/ [accessed: 18 September 2025].

Building and Wood Workers’ International (BWI). 2025. Beyond the Façade: The Realities of Labour Reforms in Saudi Arabia. [Online] Available at: https://www.bwint.org/BwiNews/NewsDetails?newsId=556 [accessed: 18 September 2025].

FAO. 2024. SOFI Statistics – Regional Near East and North Africa 2024, Annex I (Prevalence of undernourishment). [Online] Available at: https://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/b64a7d04-6d70-488d-95e8-8a9beabb7483/content/sofi-statistics-rne-2024/annex-01.html [accessed: 18 September 2025].

Financial Times. 2025. Riyadh’s property boom puts home ownership beyond reach of many Saudis. [Online] Available at: https://www.ft.com/content/4cc29603-ec42-4a09-84e0-cc2b1a9aaf7b [accessed: 18 September 2025].

FRED / World Bank. 2025. Life expectancy at birth, total (years) – Saudi Arabia (SP.DYN.LE00.IN). [Online] Available at: https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/SPDYNLE00INSAU [accessed: 18 September 2025].

General Authority for Statistics (GASTAT). 2025. Unemployment rate of total population reaches 2.8% in Q1 2025. [Online] Available at: https://www.stats.gov.sa/en/w/news/56 [accessed: 18 September 2025].

General Organization for Social Insurance (GOSI). 2024. Council of Ministers Approves New Social Insurance Law. [Online] Available at: https://gosi.gov.sa/en/MediaCenter/News/NewsDetails/1/02072024 [accessed: 18 September 2025].

Human Rights Watch. 2025. Saudi Arabia: Protect Domestic Workers’ Rights. [Online] Available at: https://www.hrw.org/news/2025/06/16/saudi-arabia-protect-domestic-workers-rights [accessed: 18 September 2025].

ITUC. 2025. ITUC Global Rights Index 2025 – Overview & country ratings. [Online] Available at: https://www.ituc-csi.org/ituc-global-rights-index-2025-en [accessed: 18 September 2025].

OECD. 2023. PISA 2022 Results (Volume I & II) – Country Note: Saudi Arabia. [Online] Available at: https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/2023/11/pisa-2022-results-volume-i-and-ii-country-notes_2fca04b9/saudi-arabia_f77dbf3a.html?utm [accessed: 18 September 2025].

Saudi Gazette. 2025. Saudi household ownership rate reaches 65.4% in 2024, surpassing 2025 target. [Online] Available at: https://www.saudigazette.com.sa/article/654597/SAUDI-ARABIA/Saudi-household-ownership-rate-reaches-654-in-2024-surpassing-2025-target [accessed: 18 September 2025].

UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS). 2023. Saudi Arabia – Education and literacy indicators. [Online] Available at: https://www.uis.unesco.org/en/themes/education-literacy [accessed: 17 September 2025].

WHO/UNICEF JMP. 2025. Saudi Arabia – WASH country page. [Online] Available at: https://washdata.org/countries/saudi-arabia [accessed: 18 September 2025].

World Bank. 2025. People using at least basic drinking water services (% of population) – Saudi Arabia (SH.H2O.BASW.ZS). [Online] Available at: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.H2O.BASW.ZS?locations=SA [accessed: 18 September 2025].

World Bank. 2025. UHC service coverage index (SDG 3.8.1) – Saudi Arabia (SH.UHC.SRVS.CV.XD). [Online] Available at: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.UHC.SRVS.CV.XD?locations=SA [accessed: 18 September 2025].

World Bank. 2025. Maternal mortality ratio (per 100,000 live births) – Saudi Arabia (SH.STA.MMRT). [Online] Available at: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.STA.MMRT?locations=SA [accessed: 18 September 2025].

15 SOUTH AFRICA

15.1 Right to Education

Score: 3/5 – Legal protection and improving access; large groups underserved or quality is uneven.

Compulsory schooling to Grade 9 is guaranteed, and access is high by regional standards. Yet learning outcomes remain a central challenge. In PIRLS 2021, South Africa’s Grade 4 reading mean was 288, with most learners below the low international benchmark, and steep poverty/rural gradients (IEA, 2022).

Recent Department of Basic Education sector reviews confirm improvements in participation and completion but also highlight persistent inequalities in resourcing and learning (DBE, 2025). On the mathematics/science side, TIMSS 2023 shows gains from a low base and continuing gaps at Grade 9 (IEA, 2025).

Overall, strong de jure access, which is hampered by uneven learning quality.

15.2 Right to Health

Score: 3/5 – Legal right recognised; partial coverage with barriers.

Life expectancy has continued to recover post-pandemic (Stats SA, 2025a). Public spending is substantial for an upper-middle-income country (World Bank, 2025a), and the UHC Service Coverage Index places South Africa in the low-70s in 2021 on WHO’s tracer set – solid for the African region yet short of universal (Frontiers, 2023; World Bank, 2025b).

However, access and quality remain bifurcated between a well-resourced private sector and a stretched public system; non-communicable diseases and service bottlenecks continue to strain delivery (World Bank, 2025b).

15.3 Right to Work & Decent Labour Conditions

Score: 3/5 – Laws exist but weakly enforced; high unemployment or widespread precarious work.

The legal framework protects a national minimum wage and collective bargaining. The National Minimum Wage increased to R28.79/hour from 1 March 2025 (DEL, 2025; gov.za, 2025).

However, unemployment remains extremely high: 33.2% (Q2 2025) on the official rate, with youth far higher (Stats SA, 2025b). Informality and long-term unemployment keep decent-work outcomes constrained despite the legal foundations in place.

15.4 Right to Social Security

Score: 4/5 – Broad Protection: Strong coverage but some groups excluded or benefits insufficient.

South Africa’s grant system provides wide coverage by middle-income standards. The General Household Survey (GHS) 2024 shows 50.4% of households receiving at least one social grant (Stats SA, 2025c).

SASSA’s latest annual report records very large beneficiary numbers across old-age, child-support, and disability grants (SASSA, 2024). Benefit adequacy and administrative frictions remain concerns, but breadth of legal coverage and de facto reach justify a high score.

15.5 Right to Housing 

Score: 3/5 – Partial Realisation: Legal right recognised; major housing shortages or affordability crises.

The right to housing is protected in law and the PIE Act (1998) constrains arbitrary evictions.

Large-scale subsidy delivery and upgrading programmes are long-standing policy pillars (National Treasury, 2016). Conditions, however, remain uneven: 11.7% of households live in informal dwellings (GHS 2024 presentation), with affordability and basic services quality varying sharply by municipality. 

15.6 Right to Food & Water

Score: 3/5 – Legal recognition but food insecurity or water shortages affect many.

Food insecurity remains material: 22.2% of households reported inadequate or severely inadequate access to food in 2024 (Stats SA, 2025c). Water and sanitation access shows mixed progress. 87.7% of households have improved water, 83.1% have improved sanitation (GHS 2024 key findings), but only 76.3% have safely managed sanitation under the stricter JMP-aligned definition (Stats SA, 2025d).

Overall score (South Africa): 3.2/5

South Africa’s composite profile yields an average score of 3/5, placing it in the mid-range of rights realisation. The constitutional and legislative framework is strong, and in several domains – particularly social security – the scale of coverage is comparatively advanced. However, severe labour-market exclusion, persistent educational underperformance, and uneven access to health, housing, and sanitation clearly highlight the gap between formal guarantees and lived realities. The data point to a society with wide formal protections but structural inequalities and implementation deficits that continue to limit equitable enjoyment of rights.

References

Department of Basic Education (DBE). 2025. Review of progress in the basic education sector to 2024. [Online] Available at: https://www.education.gov.za/Resources/Reports/tabid/92/ItemId/16243/Default.aspx [accessed: 19 September 2025]. 

Department of Employment and Labour (DEL). 2025. National Minimum Wage adjustment from 1 March 2025. [Online] Available at: https://www.labour.gov.za/national-minimum-wage-adjustment-2025 [accessed: 19 September 2025]. 

Frontiers (Editorial). 2023. Towards equitable health systems for UHC in sub-Saharan Africa (citing WHO 2021 UHC values; SA ≈ 71). [Online] Available at: https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/health-services/articles/10.3389/frhs.2023.1217844/full [accessed: 19 September 2025]. 

Government of South Africa (gov.za). 2025. National Minimum Wage increases from 1 March 2025. [Online] Available at: https://www.gov.za/speeches/national-minimum-wage-increases-1-march-2025-29-feb-2025-0000 [accessed: 19 September 2025]. 

IEA. 2022. PIRLS 2021 International Results in Reading – South Africa. [Online] Available at: https://pirls2021.org/results/ [accessed: 19 September 2025].

IEA. 2025. TIMSS 2023 International Results in Mathematics and Science – Highlights. [Online] Available at: https://www.iea.nl/publications/study-reports/international-reports-iea-studies/timss-2023-highlights-report [accessed: 19 September 2025]. 

SASSA. 2024. Annual Report 2023/24. [Online] Available at: https://www.sassa.gov.za/annual%20reports/Documents/SASSA%20Annual%20Report%202023-24.pdf [accessed: 19 September 2025]. 

South African Government. 1998. Prevention of Illegal Eviction from and Unlawful Occupation of Land Act 19 of 1998 (PIE). [Online] Available at: https://www.gov.za/sites/default/files/gcis_document/201409/a19-98.pdf [accessed: 19 September 2025]. 

Statistics South Africa (Stats SA). 2025a. Inside the Numbers: SA population trends for 2025. [Online] Available at: https://www.statssa.gov.za/?p=18613 [accessed: 19 September 2025]. 

Statistics South Africa (Stats SA). 2025b. QLFS Q2:2025 – Unemployment rate increases to 33,2%. [Online] Available at: https://www.statssa.gov.za/?p=18415 [accessed: 19 September 2025]. 

Statistics South Africa (Stats SA). 2025c. General Household Survey (GHS) 2024 – Key findings. [Online] Available at: https://www.statssa.gov.za/?p=18435 [accessed: 19 September 2025].

Statistics South Africa (Stats SA). 2025d. Nearly 1 in 5 South Africans lack access to safely managed sanitation. [Online] Available at: https://www.statssa.gov.za/?p=18433 [accessed: 19 September 2025]. 

Statistics South Africa (Stats SA). 2025e. GHS 2024 – Presentation. [Online] Available at: https://www.statssa.gov.za/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/GHS2024-Presentation.pdf [accessed: 19 September 2025].

Treasury/CoGTA/DBSA (National Treasury). 2016. South African National Upgrading Support Programme: Policies and Programmes. [Online] Available at: https://csp.treasury.gov.za/DocumentsToolbox/006.SA.NUSP.Chapter-3-Policies-and-Programmes-May-2016.pdf [accessed: 19 September 2025]. 

World Bank. 2025. Current health expenditure (% of GDP) – South Africa (SH.XPD.CHEX.GD.ZS). [Online] Available at: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.XPD.CHEX.GD.ZS?locations=ZA [accessed: 19 September 2025]. 

World Bank. 2025. UHC Service Coverage Index (SH.UHC.SRVS.CV.XD) – South Africa. [Online] Available at: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.UHC.SRVS.CV.XD?locations=ZA [accessed: 19 September 2025]. 

16 SOUTH KOREA 

16.1 Right to Education

Score: 4/5 – Strong laws and high enrolment; disparities remain.

Korea guarantees nine years of free compulsory education (Grades 1–9) and sustains near-universal participation across basic education (Framework legislation; MoE, N.d.).

Achievement is high by international standards: PISA 2022 places Korea in the top tier, with 84% of students reaching at least Level 2 in mathematics (vs OECD 69%), and strong reading and science profiles (OECD, 2023).

Nevertheless, equity pressures persist, including performance gaps by socio-economic status and an intense shadow-education market, which amplifies advantage and undercuts fairness in opportunity (MoE, N.d.; OECD, 2023).

16.2 Right to Health

Score: 5/5 – Universal, affordable health care with strong legal guarantees; excellent outcomes.

The national health insurance system achieves near-universal coverage, and outcomes are among the world’s best.

Life expectancy remains very high, maternal mortality is very low by global benchmarks, and the UHC Service Coverage Index records 89/100 (2021), reflecting broad access to essential services (WHO/World Bank, 2025; World Bank, 2025a; World Bank, 2025b).

16.3 Right to Work & Decent Labour Conditions

Score: 3/5 – Laws exist but are weakly enforced; high unemployment or widespread precarious work.

Headline unemployment is low (2.4% in July 2025) and the statutory minimum wage rose to KRW 10,030/hour in 2025 (MOEF, 2025; NPR, 2024).

However, job quality concerns are pronounced. Non-regular workers account for roughly 38% of wage earners (2024), with attendant wage and protection gaps, and the ITUC Global Rights Index 2025 rates Korea “5 – No guarantee of rights”, citing serious constraints on freedom of association and collective bargaining (BusinessKorea, 2024; ITUC, 2025).

On balance, labour-market strength is tempered by precarity and rights deficits in the labour space, supporting a mid-range score.

16.4 Right to Social Security

Score: 4/5 – Strong system, broad coverage; adequacy issues for some.

A comprehensive architecture – National Pension, Basic Pension, Employment Insurance, Industrial Accident Compensation, Long-Term Care and social assistance – confers wide legal coverage.

Yet benefit adequacy is a persistent concern. South Korea continues to record one of the highest elderly-poverty rates in the OECD, signalling gaps in replacement rates and take-up for vulnerable groups despite formal coverage breadth (OECD, 2024).

16.5 Right to Housing 

Score: 4/5 – Good housing access for most; affordability challenges or regional disparities remain.

Official data indicate low measured homelessness in population terms (OECD Affordable Housing Database, 2024), but affordability pressures, including the burden of jeonse deposits and price-to-income ratios in the Seoul metro, strain lower-income renters (OECD Affordable Housing Database, 2024).

Recent country notes place the 2024 homelessness count in the low tens of thousands nationally (OECD Affordable Housing Database, 2024).

Protections and policy tools are extensive, yet cost burdens for specific groups remain.

16.6 Right to Food & Water

Score: 5/5 – Universal access to safe water and adequate nutrition; strong protections and positive outcomes.

The JMP country page shows near-universal safely managed drinking water and sanitation services, and undernourishment sits at the FAO reporting floor (“<2.5%”) typical of high-income economies (WHO/UNICEF JMP, 2025).

While some sub-groups report food insecurity during shocks, service coverage and nutrition outcomes meet the threshold for a top score.

Overall score (South Korea): 4.2 / 5 

The combination of top-tier education performance, universal health coverage, and near-universal WASH and nutrition outcomes drives a strong overall profile. The main constraints are labour-rights enforcement and job quality (despite low unemployment), affordability pressures in housing, and equity gaps in schooling tied to socio-economic status and private tutoring. Continued focus on rights at work, social-protection adequacy for older adults, and housing affordability would close much of the remaining gap to full realisation.

References 

BusinessKorea. 2024. Non-regular Workers Account for 38.2% of Wage Earners. [Online] Available at: https://www.businesskorea.co.kr/news/articleView.html?idxno=227540 [accessed: 5 September 2025]. 

International Trade Union Confederation (ITUC). 2025. ITUC Global Rights Index 2025 – Overview. [Online] Available at: https://www.ituc-csi.org/ituc-global-rights-index-2025-en [accessed: 5 September 2025]. 

Korea Ministry of Economy and Finance (MOEF). 2025. Current Employment Situation, July 2025. [Online] Available at: https://english.moef.go.kr/pc/selectTbPressCenterDtl.do?boardCd=N0001&seq=6228 [accessed: 5 September 2025]. 

NPR. 2024. South Korea raises minimum wage to 10,030 won for 2025. [Online] Available at: https://www.npr.org/2024/07/10/nx-s1-5035478/south-korea-minimum-wage-2025 [accessed: 5 September 2025]. 

OECD. 2023. PISA 2022 Results – Country note: Korea. [Online] Available at: https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/pisa-2022-results-volume-i-and-ii-country-notes_ed6fbcc5-en/korea_4e0cc43a-en.html [accessed: 5 September 2025]. 

OECD. 2024. Society at a Glance 2024 – Income poverty of older people. [Online] Available at: https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/society-at-a-glance-2024_918d8db3-en/full-report/income-poverty_53d4eac1.html [accessed: 5 September 2025]. 

OECD Affordable Housing Database. 2024. Data on homelessness 2024 – Country notes: Korea. [Online] Available at: https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/data-on-homelessness-2024-country-notes_771d6cfd-en/korea_6db24dc7-en.html [accessed: 5 September 2025]. 

Republic of Korea Ministry of Education (MoE). N.d. Korean Education System (overview of 6-3-3-4 system; elementary & middle compulsory). [Online] Available at: https://english.moe.go.kr/sub/infoRenewal.do?m=0301&page=0301&s=english [accessed: 5 September 2025]. 

WHO/UNICEF JMP. 2025. Republic of Korea – WASH country page. [Online] Available at: https://washdata.org/countries/republic-korea [accessed: 5 September 2025]. 

WHO/World Bank. 2025. UHC Service Coverage Index (SH.UHC.SRVS.CV.XD) – Korea, Rep. [Online] Available at: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.UHC.SRVS.CV.XD?locations=KR [accessed: 5 September 2025].

World Bank. 2025a. Life expectancy at birth (SP.DYN.LE00.IN) – Korea, Rep.  [Online] Available at: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.LE00.IN?locations=KR [accessed: 5 September 2025].

World Bank. 2025b. Maternal mortality ratio (SH.STA.MMRT) – Korea, Rep.  [Online] Available at: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.STA.MMRT?locations=KR [accessed: 5 September 2025].

17 TÜRKIYE

17.1 Right to Education 

Score: 4/5 – Strong laws and high enrolment; disparities remain.

Türkiye guarantees free, compulsory basic education and participation at the primary and lower-secondary stages is near-universal in practice.

On quality, PISA 2022 places the system mid-pack among OECD countries: about 61% of 15-year-olds reached at least Level 2 in mathematics (OECD average 69%), 72% in reading (74% OECD), and 67% in science (76% OECD), with sizeable socio-economic and regional gaps (OECD, 2023).

17.2 Right to Health 

Score: 4/5 – Broad coverage with some inequalities in access/outcomes.

Outcomes are generally strong for an upper-middle/high-performing health system. Life expectancy was around the mid-70s in 2023 on World Bank series, and the UHC service coverage index shows high service availability by regional standards (World Bank UHC indicator). Maternal mortality is low in recent data.

Coverage under the General Health Insurance scheme is very wide, yet pressures from non-communicable diseases and access gaps for lower-income and rural populations keep this domain short of “excellent”. 

17.3 Right to Work & Decent Labour Conditions

Score: 2/5 – Minimal protections; exploitation common, rights to organise restricted.

Headline unemployment has come down – 8.6% in June 2025 on the official monthly series (TÜİK) – and the minimum wage was lifted again for 2025 amid high inflation, supporting earnings at the bottom.

At the same time, international monitors place Türkiye among the “10 worst countries for workers” in 2025 (ITUC, 2025), citing pervasive restrictions on trade-union rights and collective action; these findings align with long-running concerns about enforcement and job quality. On balance, labour rights conditions, informality, and inflation-eroded purchasing power point to a lower score. 

17.4 Right to Social Security

Score: 3/5 – Legal basis but limited coverage; major gaps remain.

The statutory architecture spans pensions, health insurance, unemployment insurance and social assistance. Effective coverage under SDG indicator 1.3.1 remains well below universal in the latest available series, and multiple analyses highlight adequacy and inclusion issues for certain working-age and informal-sector groups.

The social security framework is substantial, yet the breadth and sufficiency of benefits are uneven. 

17.5 Right to Housing

Score: 3/5 – Legal right recognised; major housing shortages or affordability crises.

Affordability pressures intensified after price and rent surges, exacerbated in major cities. The temporary 25% cap on rent increases, introduced as a crisis measure, expired on 1 July 2024, with adjustments reverting to the 12-month CPI average, a change associated with renewed rent shocks for lower-income tenants (Hürriyet Daily News, 2024).

Post-earthquake reconstruction and supply programmes continue, but cost burdens and security of tenure constraints prevent a higher score in this area. 

17.6 Right to Food & Water

Score: 4/5 – Broad access but disparities exist between groups or regions.

Access to improved services is high. World Bank/JMP-linked series report very wide access to basic drinking water and sanitation, and safely managed sanitation at about 79% (2022) on the national indicator pane.

Undernourishment is low, although food-price spikes have strained diet quality for vulnerable households. The overall picture is one of high coverage with affordability and equity concerns. 

Overall score (Türkiye): 3.3 / 5

Strong laws and broad access in education and health sit alongside persistent equity and quality gaps. Labour rights conditions are weak despite improvements in employment and wages; social protection remains substantial in law but uneven in reach and adequacy; housing affordability and rent dynamics remain pressure points; water and sanitation access is high with some disparities. The evidence indicates solid statutory commitments, tempered by implementation gaps and distributional stresses across several rights domains.

References

Hürriyet Daily News. 2024. 25 percent rent increase cap removed. [Online] Available at: https://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/25-percent-rent-increase-cap-removed-197957 [accessed: 19 September 2025]. 

ITUC. 2025. Global Rights Index 2025 – Overview. [Online] Available at: https://www.ituc-csi.org/ituc-global-rights-index-2025-en [accessed: 19 September 2025]. 

OECD. 2023. PISA 2022 Results – Country note: Türkiye. [Online] Available at: https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/pisa-2022-results-volume-i-and-ii-country-notes_ed6fbcc5-en/turkiye_d67e6c05-en.html [accessed: 19 September 2025]. 

Reuters. 2024. Turkey raises monthly minimum wage by 30% for 2025 to TRY 22,104. [Online] Available at: https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/turkey-raises-monthly-minimum-wage-by-30-2025-2024-12-24/ [accessed: 19 September 2025].  

SESRIC. 2025. SDG 1.3.1 – Effective social protection coverage: Türkiye (2022). [Online] Available at: https://www.sesric.org/sdg.php?ind=1.3.1&c_id=223 [accessed: 19 September 2025]. 

Turkish Statistical Institute (TÜİK). 2025. Labour Force Statistics, June 2025 (unemployment 8.6%). [Online] Available at: https://data.tuik.gov.tr/Bulten [accessed: 19 September 2025]. 

World Bank. 2025. Country data: Türkiye (includes life expectancy and WASH dashboard; safely managed sanitation 79% in 2022). [Online] Available at: https://data.worldbank.org/?locations=TR [accessed: 19 September 2025]. 

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