G20 Socio-Economic Rights Barometer

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D E C E M B E R 2 0 2 5

Author: André Gaum

Editor: Daryl Swanepoel

Language Editor: Olivia Main

CONTENTS

Introduction

Scoring Methodology

Socio-Economic Rights Matrices

Scope of Socio-Economic Rights assessed

1 Argentina

2 Australia

3 Brazil

4 Canada

5 China

6 France

7 Germany

8 India

9 Indonesia

10 Italy

11 Japan

12 Mexico

13 Russian Federation

14 Saudi Arabia

15 South Africa

16 South Korea

17 Türkiye

18 United Kingdom

19 United States of America (USA)

20 Comparative Overview and Synthesis

21 Tabulated Scores

Cover photo: istock.com - Stock photo ID:1551510273

INTRODUCTION

This Socio-Economic Rights Barometer builds on the earlier Civil and Political Rights Barometer prepared by the Inclusive Society Institute (ISI) for the G20 countries. It applies the same methodology of comparative scoring but focuses on the lived realities of socio-economic rights.

The Barometer considers the socio-economic conditions in each country as reported by various sources, both domestic, regional and international, while also recognising the existence of legal protections and policies that contribute to these conditions. Accordingly, the scoring matrices integrate both practical indicators and the strength of the legal framework into a single measure.

The Barometer is designed to be concise and accessible. It does not provide a detailed narrative for each state, but it does offer a clear, comparative picture of where G20 countries stand in relation to one another and to a core set of socio-economic rights. These rights are drawn from international human rights law, aligning primarily with the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, and represent areas of daily importance to the dignity and wellbeing of people living in these countries.

Six rights are measured:

1. The right to education

2. The right to health

3. The right to work and decent labour conditions

4. The right to social security

5. The right to housing

6. The right to food and water

Each right is assessed against a five-point scale, where a score of five reflects strong protections, effective implementation, and positive outcomes, while a score of one reflects serious deficits in both protection and lived reality. Although it is not feasible herein to provide an exhaustive evaluation of every aspect of each right, this barometer aims to establish a comparative framework that highlights patterns, progress, and areas of concern across the G20.

The ISI’s barometer measuring social and political rights compliance in the G20, together with this barometer measuring socio-economic rights, aim to offer a more complete picture of human rights conditions in the G20 and provide a basis for dialogue on shared commitments and responsibilities.

SCORING METHODOLOGY

The Socio-Economic Rights Barometer uses a five-point scale (as set out in the matrices below) to assess the level of protection and realisation of each right across the G20 countries. The scoring reflects the lived reality of rights in practice, while also factoring in the strength of legal protections, institutions, and policies that underpin those outcomes.

The Barometer relies on a mix of indicators tailored to each right, such as enrolment rates for education, life expectancy for health, unemployment and labour protections for work, coverage rates for social security, affordability and adequacy for housing, and food security and water access for the right to food and water.

While the data draws from international sources such as the United Nations, World Bank, and specialised agencies, the scoring is comparative and relative. The objective is to enable meaningful comparison and dialogue, highlighting where progress has been made and where urgent attention is needed.

SOCIO-ECONOMIC RIGHTS MATRICES 

SCOPE OF SOCIO-ECONOMIC RIGHTS ASSESSED

1. Education

The right to education is recognised in Article 13 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) and in Sustainable Development Goal 4. Education has a multiplier effect, equipping individuals with the knowledge and skills to participate fully in society, enhance their economic opportunities, and claim other rights. The Barometer evaluates this right through indicators such as enrolment and literacy rates, equality of access across socio-economic groups, and the existence and effectiveness of free and compulsory education frameworks.

2. Health

Article 12 of the ICESCR establishes the right to the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health, supported by Sustainable Development Goal 3. Health is central to dignity, well-being, equality and life, and it underpins the enjoyment of all other rights. Indicators for this right include life expectancy, maternal and child mortality rates, access to essential healthcare services, universal health coverage, and the adequacy of public health investment.

3. Work and Decent Labour Conditions

The rights to work and to just and favourable conditions of employment are guaranteed in Articles 6 and 7 of the ICESCR, and are echoed in International Labour Organisation standards and Sustainable Development Goal 8. Work is not only a source of income but also of autonomy, dignity, and social participation. The Barometer measures this right through employment rates, the existence and enforcement of minimum labour standards, workplace safety, freedom of association, and equality in employment.

4. Social Security

Article 9 of the ICESCR affirms the right to social security, recognising its essential role in protecting individuals from poverty, vulnerability, and the risks of unemployment, disability, or old age. This right is reinforced in Sustainable Development Goal 1.3. Indicators include the existence, coverage, and adequacy of social protection systems such as pensions, unemployment benefits, disability support, and child allowances, as well as the extent to which these systems are accessible to vulnerable groups.

5. Housing

Adequate housing is an integral component of the right to an adequate standard of living, set out in Article 11 of the ICESCR and reflected in Sustainable Development Goal 11. Housing is more than shelter; it provides security, privacy, and a base for family and community life. The Barometer evaluates this right using indicators such as homelessness rates, the availability of affordable housing, the prevalence of informal settlements or slums, and legal protections against forced eviction.

6. Food and Water

Also anchored in Article 11 of the ICESCR, the rights to food and water are fundamental to survival and human dignity, and are embedded in Sustainable Development Goals 2 and 6. Adequate nutrition and access to safe drinking water and sanitation are prerequisites for health, equality, and sustainable development. The Barometer measures this right through indicators including food security, malnutrition prevalence, access to safe drinking water and sanitation, and the effectiveness of related legal and policy frameworks.

1 ARGENTINA

1.1 Right to Education

Score: 3/5 – Law present; access improving, but large groups still underserved or quality is uneven.

Access is broadly high at lower-secondary level (completion close to universal in recent years), but learning outcomes are weak and unequal.

In the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) 2022, 15-year-olds in Argentina scored well below OECD (Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development) averages and only 27% of learners reached basic proficiency in mathematics, signalling persistent quality and equity issues that disproportionately affect poorer students (OECD, 2023). These outcome gaps, alongside periodic disruption pressures, justify a mid-range score anchored in quality rather than access (OECD, 2023). 

1.2 Right to Health

Score: 3/5 – Legal right recognised; partial coverage with barriers.

Argentina’s health service coverage is comparatively strong for an upper-middle-income country, but access and quality have been strained by fiscal consolidation and reported cutbacks in 2024–2025 (AP News, 2025; World Bank, 2021).

Outcomes remain middling for the region and inequalities persist; the overall picture is a system with broad coverage facing barriers for many, especially lower-income users (AP News, 2025; WHO, 2025; World Bank, 2021). 

1.3 Right to Work & Decent Labour Conditions

Score: 3/5 – Laws exist but weakly enforced; high unemployment or precarious work.

Labour law protections exist, but informality of labour is very high (42% of workers in Q4 2024), which weakens enforcement of minimum standards, social-security contributions, and workplace protections (INDEC, 2025; OECD, 2025).

Unemployment fluctuated around 6-7% into late-2024/early-2025, with pressure on purchasing power and job quality (INDEC, 2025; Reuters, 2024). This combination of laws on paper – high informality and uneven enforcement – points to a mid-low score (INDEC, 2025; Reuters, 2024). 

1.4 Right to Social Security

Score: 3/5 – Legal basis but limited coverage; major gaps remain.

Argentina has a relatively broad system by regional standards, but effective coverage was about two-thirds of the population in 2021 and adequacy is uneven, especially under fiscal tightening (ILO via UN SDG/OWID, 2024).

The design spans contributory and non-contributory schemes, yet gaps persist for informal workers and some vulnerable groups. On balance, programmes are present but uneven in reach and adequacy (ILO via UN SDG/OWID, 2024). 

1.5 Right to Housing

Score: 2/5 – Large portions of population in inadequate/informal housing; weak protections.

Housing deprivation remains significant in Argentina. The official slum registry (RENABAP) counts 5.3 million people (1 in 9) living in slums/informal settlements, with deficits in serviced land, tenure security and basic services (World Bank, 2023).

Affordability stresses and informality constrain effective protection against evictions and inadequate housing (World Bank, 2023). 

1.6 Right to Food & Water

Score: 2/5 – Basic services reach some, but malnutrition or unsafe water widespread.

Food security has deteriorated compared with the mid-2010s: the FAO’s (Food and Agriculture Association of the United Nations) FIES (Food Insecurity Experience Scale) estimates indicate around one-third of Argentines experienced moderate or severe food insecurity in recent years, and reporting through late-2024 described a grassroots “food emergency” (FAO, 2023; Reuters, 2024).

Water and sanitation lag on SDG 6: only 46% of people had safely managed sanitation (2016) and 24% of domestic wastewater was safely treated (2024). Diagnostics warn Argentina is off-track for SDG 6 without major reforms (UN-WATER/WHO/UNICEF JMP, 2023; World Bank, 2022).

Overall (Argentina): 2.7/5 (rounded)

A system with high formal access in education and health but weak realisation due to poor learning outcomes, high labour informality, sizeable housing deficits, and serious food-security shortfalls.

References

AP News. 2025. Argentines reel from health care cutbacks as President Milei’s state overhaul mirrors Trump’s. [Online] Available at: https://apnews.com/article/argentina-milei-trump-rfk-health-care-cancer-8f5c4101140e1859c11ef4baed214054 [accessed: 2 September 2025].

Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). 2023. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2023. [Online] Available at: https://www.fao.org/publications/sofi/2023/en/ [accessed: 5 September 2025]. 

ILO via UN SDG/OWID. 2024. Share covered by at least one social protection benefit (%), 2015–2023. Oxford: Our World in Data (processed), citing ILO SDG 1.3.1. (Argentina c.66% in 2021). [Online] Available at: https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/dataportal/countryprofiles/ARG https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/share-covered-by-one-social-protection-benefit [accessed: 5 September 2025].

INDEC. 2025. Mercado de trabajo: Indicadores de informalidad laboral (EPH) (Informe anual). [Online] Available at:  https://www.indec.gob.ar/uploads/informesdeprensa/informalidad_laboral_eph_04_2529DEBE4DBB.pdf [accessed: 5 September 2025].

INDEC. 2025. Mercado de trabajo. Tasas e indicadores socioeconómicos. EPH – 4º trimestre 2024. [Online] Available at: https://www.indec.gob.ar/uploads/informesdeprensa/mercado_trabajo_eph_4trim24083C6B9E41.pdf [accessed: 5 September 2025].

OECD. 2023. PISA 2022 – Country Note: Argentina. (Performance and proficiency shares). [Online] Available at: https://gpseducation.oecd.org/CountryProfile?primaryCountry=ARG&topic=PI&treshold=10&utm [accessed: 5 September 2025].

OECD. 2025. OECD Economic Surveys: Argentina 2025, chapter ‘Devising a comprehensive strategy to foster formalisation’. [Online] Available at: https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/oecd-economic-surveys-argentina-2025_27dd6e27-en/full-report/devising-a-comprehensive-strategy-to-foster-formalisation_a2bd1fe7.html  [accessed: 6 September 2025].

Reuters. 2024. In Argentina’s poverty-hit barrios a food emergency takes hold. [Online] Available at: https://www.reuters.com/world/americas/argentinas-poverty-hit-barrios-food-emergency-takes-hold-2024-10-01/?utm [accessed: 5 September 2025].

UN-WATER/WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP). 2023. Progress on household drinking water, sanitation and hygiene 2000–2022. [Online] Available at: https://data.unicef.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/07/jmp-2023-wash-households-launch-version.pdf [accessed: 5 September 2025].

UrbanNext. N.d. Risks of Informal Settlements in Argentina: Forms of Vulnerability in the Face of a Transforming Climate. [Online] Available at: https://urbannext.net/risks-of-informal-settlements/ [accessed: 11 September 2025].  

WHO. 2025. Argentina – Country Data Overview. [Online] Available at: https://data.who.int/countries/032  [accessed: 2 September 2025]. 

World Bank. N.d. Argentina Water Security: Valuing Water - Brief for Policy Makers (English). [Online] Available at: http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/945671624438916229 [accessed: 5 September 2025].

World Bank. 2021. UHC Service Coverage Index (SDG 3.8.1), Argentina. [Online] Available at: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.UHC.SRVS.CV.XD?locations=AR [accessed: 3 September 2025].

World Bank. 2023. International bank for reconstruction and development project appraisal document. [Online] Available at: https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/099190002062318780/pdf/BOSIB05034f6d3015099380c897ff1a88ee.pdf [accessed: 5 September 2025].

2 AUSTRALIA

2.1 Right to Education

Score: 4 – Strong legal framework and high enrolment; disparities remain.

Education is compulsory nationwide (state/territory laws generally require attendance from about age six through at least 16 or Year 10/12), indicating robust de jure guarantees and near-universal access in practice.

However, system outcomes show material gaps: Australia’s PISA 2022 results place roughly 74% of 15-year-olds at or above baseline proficiency (Level 2) across reading, mathematics and science—solid but slipping relative to prior cycles (OECD, 2023).

Regular attendance has deteriorated: the 2024 national rate fell to 85.9%, the lowest in a decade. Disparities are sharp for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students: attendance in Years 1–10 was 76.9% in 2024, and Year 12 retention/attainment remains well below non-Indigenous peers. These inequalities, combined with uneven quality signals, keep Australia at 4 rather than 5. 

2.2 Right to Health 

Score: 4 – Broad coverage with some inequalities in access/outcomes.

Australia has universal entitlement to subsidised care via Medicare and strong outcomes overall. The Universal Health Coverage service coverage index stands at 87 (2021, UN SDG profile). Life expectancy remains among the world’s highest, though Indigenous life expectancy lags substantially. Maternal mortality is very low at 5.6 per 100,000 (2018–2020) (AIHW, 2023).

Health spending in 2022–23 reached A$252.5 billion (9.9% of GDP), displaying strong resourcing with ongoing policy debates about illness prevention and wait-times experienced at healthcare facilities (AIHW, 2024).

Persistent gaps for First Nations people (e.g., outcome disparities and access in remote areas) prevent a top score. 

2.3 Right to Work & Decent Labour Conditions 

Score: 4 – Solid protections; generally fair conditions, but enforcement gaps.

Australia maintains comprehensive labour protections (Fair Work Framework) and has recently lifted the National Minimum Wage to A$24.95/hour (from 1 July 2025). Freedom of association and collective bargaining are recognised (ratification of ILO Conventions 87 and 98), though the right to strike is procedurally constrained to “protected” industrial action in narrow circumstances.

Work safety performance is generally strong by OECD standards yet not flawless. Two hundred workers died of traumatic injuries in the course of their employment in 2023 (1.4 per 100,000) (Safe Work Australia, 2024).

Unemployment has hovered near 4.2% through 2025, with pockets of underemployment and precarious work. Net: strong laws and standards, but some enforcement and safety concerns keep this score at 4. 

2.4 Right to Social Security

Score: 4 – Strong system, broad coverage; adequacy issues for some.

Australia’s social protection architecture (old-age pensions, unemployment benefits, disability support, family payments, rent assistance) delivers very high coverage: the UN SDG profile shows 94% of the population covered by at least one social benefit (2022).

Reforms in 2024–25 boosted Commonwealth Rent Assistance (two successive 10% increases; cumulative lift of 45% since May 2023 when combined), acknowledging cost-of-living pressures.

Nonetheless, adequacy debates persist, especially for job-seeker and youth rates, and some cohorts (temporary migrants, people in insecure housing, remote communities) face practical barriers. A score of 4 reflects breadth with lingering adequacy/coverage gaps.

2.5 Right to Housing 

Score: 3 – Legal right recognised; major shortages or affordability crises.

Homelessness (Census 2021) was experienced by 122,494 people in 2021, and homelessness services data suggest sustained pressure since. Affordability of housing has sharply deteriorated: the 2024 Rental Affordability Index reports the worst national rental affordability on record, with low-income households facing severe stress across major cities and regions (SGS Economics and Planning, 2024).

While state-based eviction rules and tenancy protections exist, strained supply and affordability crises, plus rising rough-sleeping/service demand in some jurisdictions, warrant a 3.

2.6 Right to Food & Water

Score: 4 – Broad access but disparities between groups or regions.

Access to safe water and sanitation is near-universal: the JMP shows 99.5% of Australians using safely managed drinking water services (2022), and sanitation coverage is similarly very high among high-income countries (WHO/UNICEF JMP, 2023).

However, food insecurity has escalated for vulnerable groups amid cost-of-living pressures. Foodbank’s Hunger Report 2024 documents persistently elevated household food insecurity (with particularly high rates in low-income and regional households), and ABS identifies 41% of First Nations households experiencing food insecurity at some point in 2022–23.

Overall score (Australia): 3.8

A high-income democracy with universal systems and strong legal guarantees translates into generally high de facto fulfilment of socio-economic rights. Nonetheless, equity gaps, especially affecting Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples, people in remote areas, and low-income renters, are significant across education, health outcomes, housing affordability, and food security.

References

Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS). 2023. Estimating homelessness, 2021. [Online] Available at: https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/people/housing/estimating-homelessness-census/latest-release [accessed: 4 September 2025].

Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS). 2024. 10 insights into health of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples, 2022–23. [Online] Available at: https://www.abs.gov.au/media-centre/media-releases/10-insights-health-aboriginal-and-torres-strait-islander-peoples-2022-23?utm [accessed: 4 September 2025]. 

Australian Government Department of Education. 2024. Starting school (NSW). [Online] Available at: https://education.nsw.gov.au [accessed: 4 September 2025]. 

Australian Government Department of Education. 2025. Closing the Gap – School education. [Online] Available at: https://www.education.gov.au/closing-the-gap/closing-gap-school-education [accessed: 4 September 2025]. 

Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW). 2023. Maternal deaths in Australia 2018–2020. [Online] Available at: https://www.aihw.gov.au [accessed: 4 September 2025]. 

Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW). 2024. Health expenditure Australia 2022–23 – Summary & PDF. [Online] Available at: https://www.aihw.gov.au [accessed: 4 September 2025].  

Foodbank Australia. 2024. Hunger Report 2024. [Online] Available at: https://reports.foodbank.org.au [accessed: 4 September 2025]. 

OECD. 2023. PISA 2022 Country Note: Australia. [Online] Available at: https://www.oecd.org/pisa/ [accessed: 4 September 2025]. 

Productivity Commission. 2025. Closing the Gap Dashboard – School attendance (Outcome 5). [Online] Available at: https://www.pc.gov.au/closing-the-gap-data [accessed: 4 September 2025]. 

Safe Work Australia. 2024. Key Work Health and Safety Statistics Australia 2024 (latest release). [Online] Available at: https://data.safeworkaustralia.gov.au [accessed: 4 September 2025].   

SGS Economics and Planning. 2024. Australia’s rental crisis reaches new heights: 2024 Rental Affordability Index. [Online] Available at: https://sgsep.com.au/publications/insights/rental-affordability-index-2024  [accessed: 4 September 2025].

The Guardian. 2025. School refusal, drop-outs and private enrolments on the rise (summary of PC ROGS). [Online] Available at: https://www.theguardian.com [accessed: 4 September 2025]. 

United Nations (UN). 2025. SDG Country Profile: Australia (UHC service coverage index). [Online] Available at: https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/dataportal/countryprofiles/aus [accessed: 4 September 2025]. 

Victorian Department of Education. 2024. Enrolment: School age requirements and age exemptions. [Online] Available at: https://www2.education.vic.gov.au [accessed: 4 September 2025]. 

Western Australia Department of Education. 2025. Education in WA. [Online] Available at: https://www.education.wa.edu.au [accessed: 4 September 2025]. 

WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP). 2023. Progress on household drinking water, sanitation and hygiene 2000–2022; JMP data tables for Australia. [Online] Available at: https://washdata.org/reports/jmp-2023-wash-households [accessed: 4 September 2025]. 

3 BRAZIL

3.1 Right to Education

Score: 3/5 – Legal protection present; access improving, but large groups still underserved or quality is uneven.

Brazil ensures compulsory basic education and has high participation, but learning outcomes remain weak and inequitable. In PISA 2022, only 27% of 15-year-olds reached baseline proficiency (Level 2) in mathematics, far below the OECD average (69%), with similarly low performance in reading/science – signalling quality and equity problems that particularly affect poorer regions and schools (OECD, 2023).

Adult literacy improved but disparities persist. In 2022 the adult illiteracy rate was 5.6%, but much higher among older adults and in the northeast, and roughly double for Black and Brown Brazilians versus Whites (IBGE, 2023; IBGE, 2024a). 

3.2 Right to Health 

Score: 4/5 – Broad coverage with some inequalities in access/outcomes.

Brazil’s health system provides universal entitlement, and the UHC service coverage index stands at 80/100 (2021).

Life expectancy recovered to 76.4 years in 2023, and the maternal mortality ratio has fallen long-term to 67 per 100,000 (2023), though still high relative to OECD levels, and regional and socio-economic gaps remain (IBGE, 2024b; World Bank/WHO, 2025).

Overall coverage and outcomes are solid for an upper-middle-income country, but access/quality vary by region and income. 

3.3 Right to Work & Decent Labour Conditions 

Score: 3 – Laws exist but weakly enforced; high unemployment or widespread precarious work.

The labour framework is comprehensive, yet informality remains high. 37.8% of workers were informal in Q2 2025 (38.7 million people), undermining enforcement of minimum standards, social protection contributions, and workplace safety (IBGE, 2025a).

Unemployment hit a series-low 5.8% in Apr–Jun 2025 (annual 6.6% in 2024), but under-utilisation and precarious jobs persist, with informality concentrated in the north/northeast (IBGE, 2025a; Reuters, 2025).

3.4 Right to Social Security 

Score: 3/5 – Legal basis but limited coverage; major gaps remain.

Brazil’s mixed system (contributory pensions, Bolsa Família, disability, and other transfers) provides substantial protection, but coverage of at least one social-protection benefit was 71.2% (2022) – leaving significant gaps, especially among informal workers and some vulnerable groups (UN, 2025; World Bank, 2025). Adequacy debates continue despite recent programme expansions. 

3.5 Right to Housing 

Score: 2/5 – Large portions of population in inadequate/informal housing; weak protections.

The 2022 Census found 16.39 million people (8.1% of the population) living in favelas and urban communities, highlighting extensive deficits in adequate, serviced and secure housing, with sharp regional disparities (IBGE, 2024c). While social-housing initiatives exist, the scale of informality and service gaps justifies a low score. 

3.6            Right to Food & Water 

Score: 3/5 – Legal recognition but food insecurity or water shortages affect many.

Food insecurity fell in 2023 but remains material: IBGE’s PNAD module shows 27.6% of households experienced some food insecurity, and 9.4% faced moderate or severe insecurity, with worse outcomes in rural areas and in the north/northeast (IBGE, 2024d). Water and sanitation are mixed: 87% of Brazilians used safely managed drinking-water in 2022, but only 50% had safely managed sanitation, with large subnational gaps, meaning millions still lack safe household sanitation (UN-Water/SDG 6 Data, 2022). 

Overall score (Brazil): 3/5

Brazil shows a profile of broad systems with improving outcomes, but quality/equity gaps in learning, heavy informality in work, substantial informal settlements, and sanitation shortfalls keep most domains in the 3–4 range rather than top marks.

References

IBGE. 2023. Illiteracy rate is lower in 2022, but remains high among the elderly, Black and Brown persons and in the Northeast Region. [Online] Available at: https://agenciadenoticias.ibge.gov.br/en/agencia-news/2184-news-agency/news/37103-illiteracy-rate-is-lower-in-2022-but-remains-high-among-the-elderly-black-and-brown-persons-and-in-the-northeast-regioneste-2 [accessed: 14 September 2025]. 

IBGE. 2024a. 2022 Census: Illiteracy rate falls from 9.6% to 7.0% in 12 years, though inequalities persist. [Online] Available at: https://agenciadenoticias.ibge.gov.br/en/agencia-news/2184-news-agency/news/40118-2022-census-illiteracy-rate-falls-from-9-6-to-7-0-in-12-years-though-inequalities-persist [accessed: 14 September 2025]. 

IBGE. 2024b. In 2023, life expectancy reaches 76.4 years; surpasses pre-pandemic level. [Online] Available at: https://agenciadenoticias.ibge.gov.br/en/agencia-news/2184-news-agency/news/42021-in-2023-life-expectancy-reaches-76-4-years-surpasses-pre-pandemic-level [accessed: 14 September 2025]. 

IBGE. 2024c. 2022 Census: 16.4 million persons in Brazil lived in favelas and urban communities. [Online] Available at: https://agenciadenoticias.ibge.gov.br/en/agencia-news/2184-news-agency/news/41813-2022-census-16-4-million-persons-in-brazil-lived-in-favelas-and-urban-communities [accessed: 14 September 2025]. 

IBGE. 2024d. Food security in Brazilian households increases in 2023 (PNAD Contínua – Food Security 2023). [Online] Available at: https://agenciadenoticias.ibge.gov.br/en/agencia-news/2184-news-agency/news/39857-food-security-in-brazilian-households-increases-in-2023  [accessed: 14 September 2025]. 

IBGE. 2025a. Unemployment rate reaches 5.8% in the quarter ended June, lowest level in the time series. [Online] Available at: https://agenciadenoticias.ibge.gov.br/en/agencia-news/2184-news-agency/news/44123-unemployment-rate-reaches-5-8-in-the-quarter-ended-june-lowest-level-in-the-time-series [accessed: 14 September 2025]. 

IBGE. 2025b. Quarterly Continuous PNAD: unemployment drops in 18 of the 27 Federation Units in Q2 2025 (regional notes on informality). [Online] Available at: https://agenciadenoticias.ibge.gov.br/en/agencia-press-room/2185-news-agency/releases-en/44254-quarterly-continuous-pnad-unemployment-drops-in-18-of-the-27-federation-units-in-q2-2025 [accessed: 14 September 2025]. 

OECD. 2023. PISA 2022 – Country Note: Brazil. [Online] Available at: https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/pisa-2022-results-volume-i-and-ii-country-notes_ed6fbcc5-en/brazil_61690648-en.html [accessed: 14 September 2025]. 

Reuters. 2025. Brazil’s jobless rate hits lowest yearly average ever in 2024. [Online] Available at: https://www.reuters.com/world/americas/brazils-jobless-rate-hits-lowest-yearly-average-ever-2024-2025-01-31/ [accessed: 14 September 2025]. 

United Nations (UN). 2025. SDG Country Profile: Brazil (UHC service coverage index). [Online] Available at: https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/dataportal/countryprofiles/BRA [accessed: 14 September 2025]. 

World Bank. 2024-2025. UHC Service Coverage Index (Indicator SH.UHC.SRVS.CV.XD) – Brazil (latest available value: 2021). [Online] Available at: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.UHC.SRVS.CV.XD [accessed: 14 September 2025].

World Bank. 2025. Maternal mortality ratio (SH.STA.MMRT) – Brazil. [Online] Available at: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.STA.MMRT?locations=BR  [accessed: 14 September 2025]. 

4 CANADA

4.1 Right to Education

Score: 4 – Strong legal framework and high enrolment, but some disparities remain.

Public schooling is compulsory (generally ages 6–16, varying by province/territory) and universally available without fees, with very high progression to secondary and strong quality signals (e.g., PISA). The 2022 PISA results show Canada well above OECD averages: 78% of 15-year-olds reached at least baseline proficiency in mathematics (Level 2+), with similarly strong reading and science performance – confirming overall quality and access (OECD, 2024).

However, there remain significant equity gaps for Indigenous learners and for learners in remote communities. Recent national analyses show lower high-school completion among First Nations, Inuit and Métis compared with non-Indigenous populations, with large geographic disparities; on-reserve completion has been about half in some data points (Congress of Aboriginal Peoples, 2024; Statistics Canada, 2025a).

4.2 Right to Health

Score: 4 – Broad coverage with some inequalities in access/outcomes.

Canada provides universal publicly funded health insurance; service coverage is among the highest globally (UHC service coverage index 91/100 in 2021), and life expectancy has largely recovered post-pandemic (81.7 years in 2023, both sexes) (Statistics Canada, 2025b; World Bank/WHO, 2023).

Maternal mortality remains relatively low by global standards for a high-income country, with recent modelled estimates around 12 deaths per 100,000 live births (World Bank Gender Data Portal, 2023)

However, important inequities persist: Indigenous populations face substantially lower life expectancy and worse infant mortality than non-Indigenous Canadians, with new Statistics Canada series confirming sizeable gaps through 2016–2021 (Dion et al., 2024; Statistics Canada, 2025c).

4.3 Right to Work & Decent Labour Conditions

Score: 4 – Solid framework and generally fair conditions, but enforcement gaps.

The legal framework for collective bargaining and association is robust (Canada ratified ILO Convention No. 98 in 2017), federal minimum wage is indexed and increased to C$18.00/hour on 1 April 2025, and union coverage remains high by OECD standards (around 30.4% of employees covered by a collective agreement in 2023) (Government of Canada, 2025; ILO, 2017; Statistics Canada, 2024a, 2024b).

Recent labour-market softness and cost-of-living pressures, however, have increased insecurity: the national unemployment rate reached around 6.9% mid-2025 (with pronounced youth unemployment), and concerns persist about precarious work and enforcement capacity in some sectors (Reuters, 2025; Statistics Canada, 2025d).

4.4 Right to Social Security

Score: 4 – Strong system, broad coverage; adequacy issues for some.

Canada’s social protection architecture is extensive (Old Age Security and Guaranteed Income Supplement; Canada/Quebec Pension Plans; Employment Insurance; Canada Child Benefit; provincial/territorial social assistance and disability supports).

Effective coverage across the life-cycle is high by global benchmarks (SDG indicator 1.3.1 framework), but adequacy concerns are evident in rising poverty since 2021 and record food insecurity in 2022–2023, signalling pressure on benefit levels and access, particularly for working-age households and single-parent families (Statistics Canada, 2024c; Statistics Canada, 2025e; UN SDG/ILO metadata).

4.5 Right to Housing

Score: 3 – Legal right recognised; major housing shortages or affordability crises.

Despite the National Housing Strategy Act (2019) recognising housing as a human right, outcomes have deteriorated: rental vacancy rates remain historically tight and rents elevated; CMHC’s latest reports show the average purpose-built rental vacancy at 2.2% in 2024 (up from a record-low 1.5% in 2023 but still below the 10-year average), with affordability pressures persisting (CMHC, 2024a; CMHC, 2025).

Core housing need is widespread and inequitable – around 11–12% of households by 2022 Canadian Housing Survey estimates, with affordability the main driver (CMHC, 2024b; Maytree, 2024). National PiT counts enumerated tens of thousands experiencing homelessness in 2024 across communities participating in federally coordinated counts (Infrastructure Canada, 2025).

4.6 Right to Food & Water

Score: 3 – Legal recognition but food insecurity or water shortages affect many.

While access to safe drinking water is nearly universal for most Canadians, long-term drinking water advisories persist on public systems on many First Nations reserves (37–39 advisories in 35–37 communities through mid-/late-2025), showing stark inequities (Indigenous Services Canada, 2025; Statistics Canada, 2025f).

Food insecurity reached record highs: 22.9% of people (about 8.7 million) lived in food-insecure households in 2022, with particularly high rates among one-parent families and unattached working-age adults; 2023 data continue to show elevated risks for these groups (Statistics Canada, 2024b; Statistics Canada, 2025g).

Overall score (Canada): 3.7 / 5 

The country performs very well in education and health, with universal frameworks and high global rankings, though equity gaps for Indigenous peoples and remote communities remain significant. Labour protections are robust and unionisation comparatively strong, but recent increases in unemployment and precarious work temper this strength. Social security coverage is extensive, yet adequacy challenges and rising poverty indicators highlight pressure on benefit levels. The most visible weaknesses are in housing and food/water, where affordability crises, homelessness, and persistent First Nations water advisories coincide with record household food insecurity. Taken together, Canada scores near the upper tier of the Barometer but falls short of full realisation, illustrating that a wealthy, high-capacity state can still struggle to close structural inequities. 

References

Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation (CMHC). 2024a. Fall 2024 Rental Market Report (Major Centres). [Online] Available at: https://assets.cmhc-schl.gc.ca/sites/cmhc/professional/housing-markets-data-and-research/market-reports/rental-market-report/fall-2024/rental-market-report-fall-2024-en.pdf [accessed: 14 September 2025].

Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation (CMHC). 2024b. Estimating Annual and Long-Term Flows In and Out of Core Housing Need. [Online] Available at: https://publications.gc.ca/collections/collection_2025/schl-cmhc/NH18-33-83-2024-eng.pdf [accessed: 14 September 2025]. (Master record) 

Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation (CMHC). 2025. 2025 Mid-Year Rental Market Update. [Online] Available at: https://www.cmhc-schl.gc.ca/observer/2025/2025-mid-year-rental-market-update [accessed: 14 September 2025].

Congress of Aboriginal Peoples (CAP). 2024. High school completion/graduation rates, Indigenous peoples, Census 2021 (Factsheet). [Online] Available at: https://abo-peoples.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/High-school-graduation-Indigenous-Census-2021-CAP-RD-March-24th-2023-1.pdf [accessed: 14 September 2025].

Dion, P., Morissette, R. & Bougie, E. 2025. Life expectancy at birth and infant mortality rates of Indigenous populations in Canada. [Online] Available at: https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/250603/dq250603b-eng.htm [accessed: 14 September 2025].

Government of Canada (Employment and Social Development Canada). 2025. Increasing the federal minimum wage starting April 1, 2025. [Online] Available at: https://www.canada.ca/en/employment-social-development/news/2025/02/increasing-the-federal-minimum-wage-starting-april-1-2025.html [accessed: 14 September 2025].

Indigenous Services Canada (ISC). 2025. Ending long-term drinking water advisories. [Online] Available at: https://www.sac-isc.gc.ca/eng/1506514143353/1533317130660 [accessed: 14 September 2025].

Infrastructure Canada. 2025. Everyone Counts 2024 – Highlights Report Part 1. [Online] Available at: https://housing-infrastructure.canada.ca/homelessness-sans-abri/reports-rapports/pit-counts-dp-2024-highlights-p1-eng.html [accessed: 14 September 2025].

International Labour Organization (ILO). 2017. Canada ratifies Right to Organise and Collective Bargaining Convention, 1949 (No. 98). [Online] Available at: https://www.ilo.org/resource/news/canada-ratifies-collective-bargaining-convention [accessed: 14 September 2025].

Maytree. 2024. Below the Surface: What the latest Canadian Housing Survey data tells us about housing need. [Online] Available at: https://maytree.com/publications/below-the-surface-what-the-latest-canadian-housing-survey-data-tells-us-about-housing-need/ [accessed: 14 September 2025].

OECD. 2024. PISA 2022 Country Note: Canada. [Online] Available at: https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/pisa-2022-results-volume-i-and-ii-country-notes_ed6fbcc5-en/canada_901942bb-en.html [accessed: 14 September 2025].

Reuters. 2025. Canada unemployment rate rises to 6.9% in July 2025. [Online] Available at: https://www.reuters.com/sustainability/sustainable-finance-reporting/canada-sheds-tens-thousands-jobs-tariffs-dent-hiring-plans-2025-08-08/ [accessed: 14 September 2025].

Statistics Canada. 2024a. Collective bargaining coverage rate, 2023. [Online] Available at: https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/14-28-0001/2024001/article/00010-eng.htm [accessed: 14 September 2025].

Statistics Canada. 2024b. The Daily — Canadian Income Survey, 2022. [Online] Available at: https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/240426/dq240426a-eng.htm [accessed: 14 September 2025].

Statistics Canada. 2024c. Modelled Market Basket Measure poverty rates for 2022 and 2023. [Online] Available at: https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/75f0002m/75f0002m2024001-eng.htm [accessed: 14 September 2025].

Statistics Canada. 2025a. High school completion for First Nations people, Métis, and Inuit, 2021 Census. [Online] Available at: https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/75-006-x/2025002/article/00002-eng.htm [accessed: 14 September 2025].

Statistics Canada. 2025b. The Daily — Deaths, 2023. [Online] Available at: https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/241204/dq241204a-eng.htm [accessed: 14 September 2025].

Statistics Canada. 2025c. The Daily — Life expectancy at birth and infant mortality rates of Indigenous populations in Canada. [Online] Available at: https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/250603/dq250603b-eng.htm [accessed: 14 September 2025].

Statistics Canada. 2025d. Labour Force Survey, October 2025. [Online] Available at: https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/251107/dq251107a-eng.htm [accessed: 14 September 2025].

Statistics Canada. 2025e. Quality of Life Indicator: Poverty. [Online] Available at: https://www.statcan.gc.ca/hub-carrefour/quality-life-qualite-vie/prosperity-prosperite/poverty-pauvrete-eng.htm [accessed: 14 September 2025].

Statistics Canada. 2025f. Quality of Life Indicator: Drinking water. [Online] Available at: https://www.statcan.gc.ca/hub-carrefour/quality-life-qualite-vie/environment-environnement/drinking-water-eau-potable-eng.htm [accessed: 14 September 2025].

Statistics Canada. 2025g. The Daily — Canadian Income Survey, 2023. [Online] Available at: https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/250501/dq250501b-eng.htm [accessed: 14 September 2025].

United Nations Statistics Division (UNSD) / World Bank / WHO. 2023. Universal Health Coverage Service Coverage Index – Canada (value 91, 2021). [Online] Available at: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.UHC.SRVS.CV.XD?locations=CA [accessed: 14 September 2025].

World Bank Gender Data Portal. 2023. Canada – Gender Data Profile (including maternal mortality ratio, SH.STA.MMRT). [Online] Available at: https://genderdata.worldbank.org/en/economies/canada [accessed: 14 September 2025].

5 CHINA 

5.1 Right to Education

Score: 4 – Strong laws and high enrolment; disparities remain.

China guarantees nine years of compulsory education in law. In 2023, the Ministry of Education reported a 95.7% consolidation rate for compulsory schooling, with net primary enrolment above 99% and youth literacy essentially universal.

However, disparities remain. A major source of inequality is the hukou (household registration) system, which ties access to public services like schooling to a family’s place of official registration. Migrant children moving with their parents to cities often cannot attend regular urban public schools without meeting restrictive conditions and are sometimes diverted to under-resourced “migrant schools”. Local government research highlights both proactive measures to expand access and the barriers that persist in implementation (Zheng & Zhou, 2024; NBS, 2025)

Other studies show the presence of migrant children effects on household education spending patterns, underscoring systemic inequities (Zheng & Zhou, 2024). Rural–urban gaps in teacher quality, school funding, and progression beyond compulsory education remain significant. While select provinces perform strongly in PISA assessments, those results are not nationally representative.

5.2 Right to Health 

Score: 4 – Broad coverage with some inequalities in access/outcomes.

China has achieved near-universal basic medical insurance, covering over 95% of the population (NHSA/SCIO, 2025). Life expectancy reached 78.2 years in 2023, and maternal mortality fell to the mid-teens per 100,000 live births (World Bank, 2025).

Nonetheless, inequalities remain. Out-of-pocket health spending is still significant, especially for rural households (World Bank, 2025). Urban residents have greater access to advanced care, while rural areas face shortages of facilities and trained staff.

5.3 Right to Work & Decent Labour Conditions 

Score: 3 – Laws exist but weakly enforced; high unemployment or precarious work.

China has formal labour laws protecting minimum wages, working hours, and occupational safety. Yet enforcement is uneven, especially for migrant and informal workers.

Overall unemployment was around 5.1% in 2024 (NBS, 2025), but youth unemployment (16–24, excluding students) rose to nearly 19% in mid-2025 (Reuters, 2025). Informality remains widespread, with millions of workers in precarious, insecure jobs.

5.4 Right to Social Security 

Score: 3 – Legal basis but limited coverage; major gaps remain.

China has expanded pensions, health, and unemployment insurance. Coverage is broad: contributory pensions reach most urban employees and a large share of residents (OECD, 2022; World Bank, 2023).

Yet adequacy and gaps remain. Urban employees receive higher benefits than residents, and migrant and informal workers often fall between schemes. Social assistance (Dibao) still covers over 40 million people, but benefit levels are modest relative to basic needs (UNICEF, 2024).

5.5 Right to Housing 

Score: 3 – Legal right recognised; major shortages or affordability crises.

Homeownership is among the world’s highest (academic estimates commonly >80%, with survey-based figures around 93% in 2017), but affordability is strained in major cities and conditions for many migrants remain cramped (e.g., enterprise dormitories). Rights risks around forced evictions in redevelopment have been documented by human rights organisations. 

5.6 Right to Food & Water 

Score: 4 – Broad access but disparities between groups or regions.

China has made significant strides in eliminating hunger, with undernourishment below 2.5% and child stunting around 4% (Global Hunger Index, 2024).

Access to water and sanitation has improved dramatically but remains uneven: between 2000 and 2020, safely managed drinking water coverage rose from 45.7% to 91.3%, and sanitary toilets from 18.7% to 78.5%. Rural areas continue to lag behind urban areas, and eastern provinces maintain higher coverage than central and western regions (Li, Gong, Yin & Su, 2024).

Overall score (China): 3.5 / 5

China sits in the upper-middle range of the Barometer: broad protection in Education, Health, and Food & Water, alongside partial realisation in Work, Social Security, and Housing. Strong legal guarantees and near-universal basic services are tempered by persistent rural–urban and regional disparities, hukou-related barriers for migrant families, youth labour-market fragility, affordability pressures in major cities, and uneven benefit adequacy. Overall, China performs solidly but falls short of the top tier due to these structural inequities.

Notes on evidence & scope

• PISA data in recent rounds cover only selected jurisdictions – Beijing, Shanghai, Jiangsu and Zhejiang (B-S-J-Z) – and are not nationally representative. We therefore rely on legal guarantees and Ministry of Education system indicators for national-level claims.

• Health-financing burdens are illustrated with World Bank/WHO OOP metrics (country series). 

References

Amnesty International. 2024. China – Country Report (Human Rights in China). [Online] Available at: https://www.amnesty.org/en/location/asia-and-the-pacific/east-asia/china/report-china/ [accessed: 17 September 2025].

Financial Times (FT). 2025. China’s migrant dorm entrepreneur bets on demand for cheaper housing. [Online] Available at: https://www.ft.com/content/47b4e2af-e1f9-442c-b811-937446231602 [accessed: 17 September 2025].

Global Hunger Index (GHI). 2024. China – Country Profile. [Online] Available at: https://www.globalhungerindex.org/china.html [accessed: 17 September 2025].

Huang, Y., He, S. & Gan, L. 2020. Introduction to SI: Homeownership and housing divide in China, Cities, 108(102967). [Online] Available at: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7546956/ [accessed: 17 September 2025].

Li, S., Gong, A., Yin, Y. & Su, Q. 2024. Spatiotemporal characteristics and socioeconomic inequalities in water, sanitation, and hygiene access in China from 2000 to 2020: analysis of data from three national censuses, BMC Public Health, 24(3250). [Online] Available at: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-024-20739-8 [accessed: 17 September 2025].

Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China (MOE). 2015. Compulsory Education Law of the People’s Republic of China (English translation). [Online] Available at: https://en.moe.gov.cn/documents/laws_policies/201506/t20150626_191391.html  [accessed: 17 September 2025].

National Bureau of Statistics of China (NBS). 2025. Statistical Communiqué of the People’s Republic of China on the 2024 National Economic and Social Development. [Online] Available at: https://www.stats.gov.cn/english/PressRelease/202502/t20250228_1958822.html  [accessed: 17 September 2025].

National Healthcare Security Administration (NHSA) / State Council Information Office (SCIO). 2025. China’s basic medical insurance covers 95% of population. Xinhua. [Online] Available at: https://english.news.cn/20250724/c56018579bc645578bb20a657b444067/c.html  [accessed: 17 September 2025].

Reuters. 2025. China's youth jobless rate climbs to 18.9% in August. [Online] Available at: https://www.reuters.com/world/chinas-youth-jobless-rate-climbs-189-august-2025-09-17/ [accessed: 17 September 2025].

UNICEF China. 2024. Budget Brief – Social Assistance (Dibao). [Online] Available at: https://www.unicef.cn/en/media/28346/file/Budget%20Brief%20-%20Social%20Assistance.pdf [accessed: 17 September 2025].

World Bank. 2025. World Development Indicators: Out-of-pocket expenditure (% of current health expenditure) – China. [Online] Available at: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.XPD.OOPC.CH.ZS?locations=CN  [accessed: 17 September 2025].

World Bank/OECD. 2022/2023. China Economic Update: December 2023; Pensions at a Glance: Asia/Pacific 2022. [Online] Available at: https://thedocs.worldbank.org/en/doc/cf2c1298e77c50bf1f1e7954ff560bc6-0070012023/original/China-Economic-Update-Dec23-EN.pdf [accessed: 17 September 2025].

Zheng, X. & Zhou, Y. 2024. Are migrants a threat? Migrant children and human capital investments among local households in urban China, Humanities and Social Sciences Communications, 11: 672. [Online] Available at: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41599-024-03199-8 [accessed: 17 September 2025].

6 FRANCE 

6.1 Right to Education

Score: 4 – Strong laws and high enrolment; disparities remain.

France guarantees free, compulsory education from ages 3 to 16 (Code de l’éducation). Enrolment is nearly universal in primary and secondary, with literacy at 99% among youth (UIS, 2023).

In PISA 2022, 75% of 15-year-olds achieved baseline proficiency in maths (OECD, 2023), close to the OECD average, but socio-economic disparities remain sharp: children of immigrant background and those from low-income households are less likely to achieve expected competencies (OECD, 2023). Regional inequalities also affect rural and overseas territories.

6.2 Right to Health

Score: 5 – Universal affordable healthcare; excellent outcomes; strong guarantees.

France has a universal health system (Assurance maladie) with high public coverage. Life expectancy was 82.5 years in 2023, among the highest in the European Union (EU) (INSEE, 2025a; World Bank, 2024a).

The UHC service coverage index is 89/100 (World Bank/WHO, 2021). Maternal mortality is very low (8 per 100,000 live births in 2020) and infant mortality around 3.5 per 1,000 (INSEE, 2025b; World Bank, 2024b). While health disparities exist (notably in access to specialists in rural areas), overall outcomes and coverage justify a top score.

6.3 Right to Work & Decent Labour Conditions

Score: 4 – Solid protections; generally fair conditions, but enforcement gaps.

France has comprehensive labour protections, strong unions, and a statutory minimum wage (SMIC), which rose to €11.65/hour in January 2025 (Ministère du Travail, 2025).

Unemployment has declined from double-digits a decade ago to 7.5% in mid-2025 (INSEE, 2025c).

Yet challenges remain: youth unemployment is still high (16%), and informal/temporary contracts are prevalent, with labour-market duality between permanent and fixed-term workers (OECD, 2024).

6.4 Right to Social Security

Score: 5 – Comprehensive, universal and adequate social protection.

France’s welfare state provides broad coverage across pensions, unemployment, family benefits, and universal health. Social protection expenditure accounted for 31% of GDP in 2022, the highest in the EU (Eurostat, 2024a). Coverage is nearly universal, with both contributory and non-contributory schemes. While debates about sustainability continue, adequacy and reach are among the strongest globally.

6.5 Right to Housing

Score: 3 – Legal right recognised; major housing shortages or affordability crises.

Housing is recognised as a right in French law (loi DALO, 2007), but access challenges remain acute. Homelessness affected an estimated 330,000 people in 2023, nearly doubling since 2012 (Fondation Abbé Pierre, 2024).

Rental affordability has worsened, especially in Paris and other major cities, with average rent-to-income ratios exceeding 30% for low-income households (Eurostat, 2024b). While strong legal guarantees exist, shortages and affordability issues justify a mid-level score.

6.6 Right to Food & Water

Score: 5 – Universal safe water and adequate nutrition; strong protections.

France has virtually universal access to safely managed drinking water and sanitation (>99% of the population in 2022) (UN-Water/WHO/UNICEF JMP, 2023). Rates of undernourishment are negligible (<2.5%) (FAO, 2023).

Food insecurity rose modestly during inflationary pressures in 2022–2023 but remained limited compared to many countries; social programmes and food banks mitigate the impact (FAO, 2023). Overall, France achieves near-universal access to adequate food and water.

Overall Score (France): 4.3 / 5

France ranks at the top end of the Barometer, combining universal health care, robust social protection, and near-universal access to food, water, and education. Its welfare state and labour protections are among the strongest globally, underpinning high life expectancy, comprehensive safety nets, and broadly fair working conditions. The main constraints are structural inequalities, notably in educational outcomes by socio-economic status, persistent youth unemployment, and acute housing shortages and affordability crises despite strong legal guarantees. Overall, France demonstrates very high socio-economic rights protection, with housing standing out as the most significant weak spot.

References 

Eurostat. 2024a. Social protection expenditure as % of GDP (indicator code tps00098). [Online] Available at: https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/product/view/tps00098?lang=en  [accessed: 17 September 2025]. 

Eurostat. 2024b. Housing cost overburden rate (EU-SILC; dataset code ilc_lvho07a). [Online] Available at: https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/product/view/ilc_lvho07a?lang=en  [accessed: 17 September 2025]. 

Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). 2023. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2023. [Online] Available at: https://www.fao.org/publications/sofi/2023/en/ [accessed: 17 September 2025]. 

Fondation Abbé Pierre. 2024. 29e rapport sur l’état du mal-logement en France. [Online] Available at: https://www.fondationpourlelogement.fr/29e-rapport-sur-letat-du-mal-logement-en-france-2024/  [accessed: 17 September 2025].  

INSEE. 2025a. Bilan démographique 2024 (life expectancy figures). [Online] Available at: https://www.insee.fr/fr/statistiques/8327319 [accessed: 17 September 2025].  

INSEE. 2025b. Un enfant sur 250 meurt avant l’âge d’un an en France (infant mortality). [Online] Available at: https://www.insee.fr/fr/statistiques/8547061 [accessed: 17 September 2025]. 

INSEE. 2025c. Chômage au sens du BIT – Résultats trimestriels (2025 T2). [Online] Available at: https://www.insee.fr/fr/statistiques/8627586 [accessed: 17 September 2025].  

Ministère du Travail. 2025. Le SMIC (salaire minimum de croissance) – niveaux en vigueur autour du 1er janvier 2025. [Online] Available at: https://travail-emploi.gouv.fr/le-smic-salaire-minimum-de-croissance [accessed: 17 September 2025]. See also INSEE monthly SMIC series: https://www.insee.fr/fr/statistiques/serie/000879877 [accessed: 17 September 2025]. 

OECD. 2023. PISA 2022 Country Note: France. [Online] Available at: https://www.oecd.org/pisa/publications/PISA2022_CN_FRA.pdf [accessed: 17 September 2025]. 

OECD. 2024. OECD Economic Surveys: France 2024. [Online] Available at: https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/oecd-economic-surveys-france-2024_bd96e2ed-en.html (PDF: https://www.oecd.org/content/dam/oecd/en/publications/reports/2024/07/oecd-economic-surveys-france-2024_ea032499/bd96e2ed-en.pdf) [accessed: 17 September 2025]. 

UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS). 2023. France – Education and literacy indicators. [Online] Available at: http://uis.unesco.org/en/country/fr [accessed: 17 September 2025]. 

UN-Water/WHO/UNICEF JMP. 2023. Household drinking water, sanitation and hygiene data portal (select “France”). [Online] Available at: https://washdata.org/data/household [accessed: 17 September 2025]. 

World Bank. 2024a. Life expectancy at birth, total (years) – France (SP.DYN.LE00.IN). [Online] Available at: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.LE00.IN?locations=FR [accessed: 17 September 2025]. 

World Bank. 2024b. Maternal mortality ratio (per 100,000 live births) – France (SH.STA.MMRT). [Online] Available at: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.STA.MMRT?locations=FR [accessed: 17 September 2025]. 

World Bank/WHO. 2021. Tracking Universal Health Coverage: 2021 Global Monitoring Report. [Online] Available at: https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240032090 [accessed: 17 September 2025].  

7 GERMANY 

7.1 Right to Education

Score: 4 – Strong laws and high enrolment; disparities remain.

Education is free and compulsory from ages 6 to 16 across Germany’s Länder, with near-universal enrolment in primary and lower secondary (UIS, 2023). Literacy among youth is essentially universal. In PISA 2022, 76% of students reached baseline proficiency in mathematics, slightly above the OECD average (OECD, 2023a).

However, socio-economic and migrant-background disparities remain acute, with children from disadvantaged households performing significantly below peers (OECD, 2023a). Early school leaving is low (9%), but regional variations persist between eastern and western states (Eurostat, 2024a).

7.2 Right to Health

Score: 5 – Universal, affordable health care with strong legal guarantees; excellent outcomes.

Germany has a statutory health insurance system covering 90% of the population, with the remainder in private schemes, ensuring universal coverage (OECD, 2023b). The UHC service coverage index is 89/100 (World Bank/WHO, 2021).

Life expectancy was 80.8 years in 2023 (World Bank, 2024a), and maternal mortality is very low (3 per 100,000 live births) (World Bank, 2024b). Infant mortality stands at 3.2 per 1,000 (Eurostat, 2024b). While some rural areas face doctor shortages, overall access and outcomes justify a top score.

7.3 Right to Work & Decent Labour Conditions

Score: 4 – Solid protections; generally fair conditions, but enforcement gaps.

Labour protections are robust: Germany enforces collective bargaining, strong worker participation, and a statutory minimum wage, raised to €12.41/hour in January 2025 (BMAS, 2025a).

Unionisation is lower than in Nordic states (16% of workers in 2023), but collective bargaining coverage remains high at 52% (OECD, 2023c). Unemployment is among the lowest in the EU at 3.2% mid-2025 (Eurostat, 2024c). Yet precarious forms of work (mini -jobs, fixed-term contracts) are widespread, and wage gaps persist between eastern and western regions.

7.4 Right to Social Security

Score: 5 – Comprehensive, universal and adequate social protection.

Germany has one of the most extensive welfare systems globally, with contributory pensions, unemployment insurance, and extensive family, disability, and housing benefits. Social protection spending is high at 27% of GDP in 2022, one of the top rates in the EU (Eurostat, 2024d). Coverage is near-universal, and adequacy levels are high, with poverty reduction effects well-documented. Structural debates remain (e.g., pension sustainability), but accessibility and adequacy support a “5”.

7.5 Right to Housing

Score: 3 – Legal right recognised; major housing shortages or affordability crises.

Germany faces an affordability and supply crisis in major cities. Average rent-to-income ratios exceed 30% for low-income households, with rents rising rapidly in Berlin, Munich, and Hamburg (OECD, 2023d).

Homelessness numbers are high, and with a high level of variance between different estimates, depending on data collection methodologies, ranging between 263,000 and 607,000 people in 2022, with refugee arrivals adding pressure (BAG W, 2023). Legal tenant protections are strong, but shortages and affordability challenges justify a “3”.

7.6 Right to Food & Water

Score: 5 – Universal access to safe water and adequate nutrition; strong protections.

Access to safe drinking water and sanitation is universal: 100% of households use safely managed drinking water and sanitation services (UN-Water/WHO/UNICEF JMP, 2023).

Undernourishment is very low (<2.5%) (FAO, 2023). Food insecurity is among the lowest globally, though food bank usage has increased during inflationary spikes, affecting vulnerable groups (Tafel Deutschland, 2024). Nevertheless, national systems secure universal access.

Overall score (Germany): 4.3 / 5 

Germany performs at a very high level across most socio-economic rights, anchored by universal health care, one of the world’s strongest welfare systems, and near-universal access to safe food and water. Education and labour protections are robust, though disparities remain for children from migrant or disadvantaged backgrounds and in the prevalence of precarious jobs. The most significant weakness lies in housing, where affordability crises in major cities and persistent homelessness contrast with otherwise strong protections. Overall, Germany demonstrates comprehensive protection of socio-economic rights, with housing standing out as the key area requiring urgent policy attention.

References 

BAG Wohnungslosenhilfe (BAG W). 2023. Zahl der wohnungslosen Menschen – Übersicht (Wohnungslosigkeit in Deutschland 2022). [Online] Available at: https://www.bagw.de/de/themen/zahl-der-wohnungslosen/uebersicht [accessed: 5 September 2025]. 

BMAS. 2025a. Allgemeiner gesetzlicher Mindestlohn (current legal rate incl. 1 Jan 2025). [Online] Available at: https://www.bmas.de/DE/Arbeit/Arbeitsrecht/Mindestlohn/mindestlohn.html  [accessed: 5 September 2025]. 

(See also: Vierte Mindestlohnanpassungsverordnung (MiLoV4) confirming €12.41 from 1 Jan 2024 and €12.82 from 1 Jan 2025: https://www.bmas.de/DE/Service/Gesetze-und-Gesetzesvorhaben/vierte-mindestlohnanpassungsverordnung-milov4.html) 

Eurostat. 2024a. Early leavers from education and training (% of population aged 18–24) – edat_lfse_14. [Online] Available at: https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/edat_lfse_14/default/table?lang=en [accessed: 5 September 2025]. 

Eurostat. 2024b. Infant mortality rate – demo_minfind. [Online] Available at: https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/product?code=demo_minfind&language=EN&mode=view [accessed: 5 September 2025]. 

Eurostat. 2024c. Unemployment rate – monthly, seasonally adjusted (UNE_RT_M). [Online] Available at: https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/product/view/une_rt_m [accessed: 5 September 2025]. 

Eurostat. 2024d. Social protection expenditure, % of GDP (tps00098). [Online] Available at: https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/tps00098/default/table?lang=en 

[accessed: 5 September 2025]. 

FAO. 2023. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2023. [Online] Available at: https://openknowledge.fao.org/items/445c9d27-b396-4126-96c9-50b335364d01 [accessed: 5 September 2025]. 

OECD. 2023a. PISA 2022 – Country Note: Germany. [Online] Available at: https://www.oecd.org/pisa/publications/PISA2022CountryNoteGermany.pdf [accessed: 5 September 2025]. 

OECD. 2023b. Germany: Country Health Profile 2023 (State of Health in the EU). [Online] Available at: https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/2023/12/germany-country-health-profile-2023_2e55ab0e.html [accessed: 5 September 2025].  

(Direct PDF: https://www.oecd.org/content/dam/oecd/en/publications/reports/2023/12/germany-country-health-profile-2023_2e55ab0e/21dd4679-en.pdf) 

OECD. 2023c. OECD Employment Outlook 2023. [Online] Available at: https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/oecd-employment-outlook-2023_08785bba-en.html [accessed: 5 September 2025].  

(Direct PDF: https://www.oecd.org/content/dam/oecd/en/publications/reports/2023/07/oecd-employment-outlook-2023_904bcef3/08785bba-en.pdf) 

OECD. 2023d. OECD Affordable Housing Database (country selections incl. Germany). [Online] Available at: https://www.oecd.org/housing/data/affordable-housing-database.htm [accessed: 5 September 2025]. 

Tafel Deutschland. 2024. Jahresbericht 2024. [Online] Available at: https://www.tafel.de/fileadmin/media/Publikationen/Jahresberichte/PDF/Jahresbericht_2024_Tafel_Deutschland.pdf [accessed: 5 September 2025]. 

UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS). 2023. Germany – Education indicators (UIS country page). [Online] Available at: https://uis.unesco.org/en/country/de [accessed: 5 September 2025]. 

UN-Water/WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP). 2023. Germany – Country files for drinking water, sanitation and hygiene (household). [Online] Available at: https://washdata.org/countries/germany [accessed: 5 September 2025]. 

World Bank. 2024a. Life expectancy at birth, total (years) – Germany (SP.DYN.LE00.IN). [Online] Available at: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.LE00.IN?locations=DE [accessed: 5 September 2025]. 

World Bank. 2024b. Maternal mortality ratio (modeled estimate, per 100,000 live births) – Germany (SH.STA.MMRT). [Online] Available at: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.STA.MMRT?locations=DE [accessed: 5 September 2025]. 

World Bank/WHO. 2021. Tracking Universal Health Coverage: 2021 Global Monitoring Report. [Online] Available at: https://iris.who.int/bitstream/handle/10665/357607/9789240040618-eng.pdf?sequence=1 [accessed: 5 September 2025]. 

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