G20 Socio-Economic Rights Barometer
- Inclusive Society Institute
- 5 days ago
- 11 min read
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18 UNITED KINGDOM
18.1 Right to Education
Score: 4/5 – Strong laws and high enrolment, but some disparities remain.
In England, young people must remain in education or training until age 18 – through full-time study, an apprenticeship, or work combined with part-time training – ensuring sustained high participation (Gov.UK [Department for Education], 2024). The UK’s devolved constitutional structure means education policy is set separately in England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland, each with distinct statutory frameworks and governance (Scottish Government, 2024; Welsh Government, 2024; Department of Education NI, 2024). Compulsory schooling extends only to age 16 in Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland, with post-16 participation promoted through further education, apprenticeships, and vocational pathways, while England alone imposes the formal duty to remain until 18. This devolution produces some divergence in curricula, qualification frameworks, and targeted interventions, but all four nations maintain broadly universal access and high participation, with persistent inequalities by socio-economic status and geography (OECD, 2023).
Learning outcomes are strong by OECD standards: in PISA 2022, 76% reached at least Level 2 in mathematics (OECD average 69%), and 80% reached Level 2+ in both reading and science (OECD averages 74% and 76%). Persistent socio-economic gaps remain, so performance is high but not yet universally equitable (OECD, 2023).
18.2 Right to Health
Score: 4/5 – Broad coverage with some inequalities in access/outcomes.
Life expectancy was about 81.6 years in 2023, and the UHC service coverage index stands at about 88/100 (2021), both high by global standards. Maternal mortality was 11.7 per 100,000 maternities in 2020–2022 (excluding COVID-19 deaths).
Access pressures are evident: NHS England’s elective waiting list remained around 7.37–7.39 million pathways in spring 2025. Taken together, coverage and outcomes are strong, though timely access is strained. (BMA, 2025; BMJ, 2025; MBRRACE-UK, 2025; World Bank/WHO, 2025).
18.3 Right to Work & Decent Labour Conditions
Score: 4/5 – Solid protections; generally fair conditions, but enforcement gaps.
Unemployment averaged 4.7% in Mar–May 2025, and the National Living Wage rose to £12.21/hour from 1 April 2025. Union density is stable but modest (22–23%), and international monitors note ongoing restrictions – e.g., limits on strikes in broadly defined “essential services” – which keeps the score at 4 rather than 5 (DBT/ONS, 2025; Gov.UK, 2024; ITUC, 2025; LPC, 2025; ONS, 2024a).
18.4 Right to Social Security
Score: 4/5 – Strong system, broad coverage; adequacy issues for some.
UK SDG reporting shows very broad population coverage by at least one social-protection benefit (indicator 1.3.1). Yet adequacy concerns persist.
Recent briefings estimate around one-fifth of people in poverty after housing costs, with depth of poverty increasing for some groups. Coverage is wide, but adequacy of social security remains a challenge for some (House of Commons Library; UK SDG Data Platform, N.d.).
18.5 Right to Housing
Score: 3/5 – Legal right recognised; major housing shortages or affordability crises.
Homelessness pressures are acute: 131,140 households were in temporary accommodation in England as at 31 March 2025 (a record high for the UK), and single-night rough-sleeping counts rose to 4,667 in autumn 2024.
Affordability remains stretched: private rents rose 6.7% year-on-year to June 2025, and the England median house-price-to-earnings ratio stayed 7.7 in 2024, which is high historically (DLUHC, 2025; ONS, 2025b).
18.6 Right to Food & Water
Score: 4/5 – Broad access but disparities between groups or regions.
Access to safely managed drinking water and sanitation is essentially universal on UK/JMP series. Food insecurity, however, persists for low-income households:
The Food Foundation’s tracker reported 14% of households were food insecure in January 2025, with higher rates among families with young children. High baseline services plus persistent inequality yields a 4 (Food Foundation, 2025; WHO/UNICEF JMP, 2025; World Bank, 2025).
Overall score (UK): 3.8 / 5
The UK combines comprehensive legal guarantees and high service coverage with solid educational attainment and labour standards. The principal constraints lie in access and affordability, especially housing pressures and national health service waiting times, and in persistent socio-economic inequalities that limit fully equitable realisation of rights.
References
BMJ. 2025. NHS waiting list falls in England, but leaders warn of “long way to go”. [Online] Available at: https://www.bmj.com/content/389/bmj.r1222 [accessed: 19 September 2025].
British Medical Association (BMA). 2025. NHS backlog data analysis. [Online] Available at: https://www.bma.org.uk/advice-and-support/nhs-delivery-and-workforce/pressures/nhs-backlog-data-analysis [accessed: 19 September 2025].
Department for Business and Trade/Office for National Statistics (DBT/ONS). 2025. Trade union membership, UK, 1995 to 2024: statistical bulletin. [Online] Available at: https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/trade-union-statistics-2024/trade-union-membership-uk-1995-to-2024-statistical-bulletin [accessed: 19 September 2025].
Department for Levelling Up, Housing and Communities (DLUHC). 2025. Statutory homelessness in England: January to March 2025. [Online] Available at: https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/statutory-homelessness-in-england-january-to-march-2025/statutory-homelessness-in-england-january-to-march-2025 [accessed: 19 September 2025].
Department for Levelling Up, Housing and Communities (DLUHC). 2025. Rough sleeping snapshot in England: autumn 2024. [Online] Available at: https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/rough-sleeping-snapshot-in-england-autumn-2024/rough-sleeping-snapshot-in-england-autumn-2024 [accessed: 19 September 2025].
Department of Education (Northern Ireland). 2024. Education system in Northern Ireland – overview. [Online] Available at: https://www.education-ni.gov.uk/topics/education-system [accessed: 19 September 2025].
Food Foundation. 2025. Food insecurity tracking – overview and latest figures (incl. Jan 2025 wave). [Online] Available at: https://foodfoundation.org.uk/initiatives/food-insecurity-tracking [accessed: 19 September 2025].
Gov.UK. N.d. Know when you can leave school. [Online] Available at: https://www.gov.uk/know-when-you-can-leave-school [accessed: 19 September 2025].
Gov.UK. 2024. National Living Wage to increase to £12.21 in April 2025. [Online] Available at: https://www.gov.uk/government/news/national-living-wage-to-increase-to-1221-in-april-2025 [accessed: 19 September 2025].
Gov.UK (Department for Education). 2024. Participation of young people in education, employment or training – statutory guidance. [Online] Available at: https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/660e971663b7f8001fde187f/Participation_of_young_people_in_education__employment_or_training.pdf [accessed: 19 September 2025].
International Trade Union Confederation (ITUC). 2025. Global Rights Index 2025. [Online] Available at: https://www.ituc-csi.org/IMG/pdf/en__global_right_index_2025__final_web.pdf [accessed: 19 September 2025].
Low Pay Commission (LPC). 2025. The National Minimum Wage in 2025. [Online] Available at: https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/67e6b6b296745eff958ca027/LPC_2025_Uprating_Report.pdf [accessed: 19 September 2025].
MBRRACE-UK (NPEU, University of Oxford). 2025. Maternal mortality 2020–2022 (Data Brief). [Online] Available at: https://www.npeu.ox.ac.uk/mbrrace-uk/data-brief/maternal-mortality-2020-2022 [accessed: 19 September 2025].
OECD. 2023. PISA 2022 – United Kingdom country note. [Online] Available at: https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/pisa-2022-results-volume-i-and-ii-country-notes_ed6fbcc5-en/united-kingdom_9c15db47-en.html [accessed: 19 September 2025].
Office for National Statistics (ONS). 2025a. Employment in the UK: July 2025. [Online] Available at: https://www.ons.gov.uk/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/employmentandemployeetypes/bulletins/employmentintheuk/july2025 [accessed: 19 September 2025].
Office for National Statistics (ONS). 2025b. Private rent and house prices, UK: July 2025. [Online] Available at: https://www.ons.gov.uk/economy/inflationandpriceindices/bulletins/privaterentandhousepricesuk/july2025 [accessed: 19 September 2025].
Office for National Statistics (ONS). 2025c. Housing affordability in England and Wales: 2024. [Online] Available at: https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/housing/bulletins/housingaffordabilityinenglandandwales/2024 [accessed: 19 September 2025].
Scottish Government. 2024. Education in Scotland – statutory framework and responsibilities. [Online] Available at: https://www.gov.scot/policies/schools/ [accessed: 19 September 2025].
UK SDG Data Platform (ONS). N.d. Indicator 1.3.1 – Proportion of population covered by social protection floors/systems (UK). [Online] Available at: https://sdgdata.gov.uk/1-3-1/ [accessed: 19 September 2025].
Welsh Government. 2022. Curriculum for Wales guidance. [Online] Available at: https://hwb.gov.wales/curriculum-for-wales [accessed: 19 September 2025].
Welsh Government. 2024. Education and skills – school curriculum and compulsory age. [Online] Available at: https://www.gov.wales/education-skills [accessed: 19 September 2025].
WHO/UNICEF JMP. 2025. United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland – country page. [Online] Available at: https://washdata.org/countries/united-kingdom-great-britain-and-northern-ireland [accessed: 19 September 2025].
World Bank. 2025. Life expectancy at birth (SP.DYN.LE00.IN) – United Kingdom. [Online] Available at: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.LE00.IN?locations=GB [accessed: 19 September 2025].
World Bank/WHO. 2025. UHC Service Coverage Index (SH.UHC.SRVS.CV.XD) – United Kingdom (2021 value). [Online] Available at: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.UHC.SRVS.CV.XD [accessed: 19 September 2025].
19 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA (USA)
19.1 Right to Education
Score: 4 – Strong legal framework and high enrolment; disparities remain.
Compulsory schooling exists in all states (generally until ages 16–18), and participation to the end of upper-secondary is high (ECS, 2021). The national on-time high-school graduation rate (ACGR) was 87% in 2021–22, with persistent gaps by race, disability and English-learner status (NCES, 2024). On quality, PISA 2022 places the United States near the OECD average in reading and science but below in mathematics; only 66% of 15-year-olds reached at least Level 2 in mathematics, highlighting equity and performance challenges that remain despite strong access (OECD, 2023).
19.2 Right to Health
Score: 3 – Legal right recognised; partial coverage with barriers.
Health coverage is extensive but not universal. In 2023, 8.0% of people were uninsured for the entire year, and 92.0% had coverage at some point (Census Bureau, 2024). Life expectancy recovered to 78.4 years in 2023 (CDC/NCHS, 2025), and the maternal mortality rate fell to 18.6 per 100,000 live births in 2023 (NCHS e-stats).
The UHC service coverage index is high by global standards (2021), but affordability and sub-national inequities still limit timely access to care (World Bank, 2024).
19.3 Right to Work & Decent Labour Conditions
Score: 3 – Laws exist but weakly enforced; high unemployment or widespread precarious work.
Federal labour statutes (FLSA, OSHA, NLRA) set a substantial framework, but several indicators point to uneven protection. The national unemployment rate hovered around the mid-4% range in mid-2025 (BLS, 2025a), while union membership fell to 9.9% of workers in 2024 (BLS, 2025b).
The federal minimum wage remains $7.25 per hour, with wide state variation (U.S. DOL, 2025). Independent monitors classify the United States as experiencing “systematic violations” of trade-union rights (ITUC, 2025).
19.4 Right to Social Security
Score: 4 – Strong system, broad coverage; adequacy issues for some.
The system spans contributory social insurance and means-tested programmes. About 69.5 million people received Social Security benefits as of July 2025 (SSA, 2025).
Unemployment Insurance exists nationwide, though recipiency and benefit adequacy vary markedly by state (DOL/ETA, 2025). Coverage gaps persist – especially for groups moving in and out of work – and benefit levels are not always enough to prevent hardship.
19.5 Right to Housing
Score: 3 – Legal right recognised; major housing shortages or affordability crises.
Homelessness reached a modern high in the January 2023 point-in-time count (653,104 people), and subsequent Congressional analysis notes continued increases through 2024 (HUD, 2023; CRS, 2025).
Affordability pressures remain severe: in 2023, 22.6 million renter households were cost-burdened, with over a quarter severely burdened (JCHS, 2025). These conditions indicate system capacity and protections exist, yet supply and affordability shortfalls persist.
19.6 Right to Food & Water
Score: 4 – Broad access but disparities between groups or regions.
Food insecurity rose to 13.5% of households in 2023, including 5.1% with very low food security (USDA ERS, 2024). Drinking-water compliance is high overall – EPA’s national report shows the vast majority of public water systems meet health-based standards – though violations are more common among smaller systems.
Persistent inequities remain, however. Millions of residents lack safe and reliable water or basic plumbing, with disproportionate impacts on Native American, Black and Latino communities (EPA, 2025; US Water Alliance/DigDeep, 2023).
Overall score (USA): 3.5 / 5
The United States benefits from extensive laws and high coverage across education and social protection, and health outcomes have improved post-pandemic. However, the combination of non-universal health coverage, uneven labour protections and union rights, record housing stress, and unequal access to nutritious food and safe water means that, on average, rights are realised to a solid but incomplete degree.
References
CDC/NCHS. 2025. U.S. Life Expectancy, 2023, Data Brief No. 521. [Online] Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/products/databriefs/db521.htm [accessed: 6 September 2025].
Census Bureau. 2024. Uninsured Rate Held Steady at 8.0% in 2023. [Online] Available at: https://www.census.gov/library/stories/2024/09/health-insurance-coverage-2023.html [accessed: 6 September 2025].
Congressional Research Service (CRS). 2025. Homelessness, In Focus IF12985 (5 May). [Online] Available at: https://www.congress.gov/crs_external_products/IF/PDF/IF12985/IF12985.1.pdf [accessed: 6 September 2025].
Education Commission of the States (ECS). 2021. 50-State Comparison: Compulsory School Age Requirements. [Online] Available at: https://www.ecs.org/50-state-comparison-compulsory-school-age-requirements/ [accessed: 6 September 2025].
EPA. 2025. Providing Safe Drinking Water in America: 2022 National Public Water Systems Report. [Online] Available at: https://www.epa.gov/compliance/providing-safe-drinking-water-america-2022-national-public-water-systems-report [accessed: 6 September 2025].
Harvard Joint Center for Housing Studies (JCHS). 2025. The State of the Nation’s Housing 2025. [Online] Available at: https://www.jchs.harvard.edu/state-nations-housing-2025 [accessed: 6 September 2025].
HUD. 2023. 2023 Annual Homelessness Assessment Report (AHAR), Part 1: PIT Estimates of Homelessness in the U.S. [Online] Available at: https://www.huduser.gov/portal/datasets/ahar/2023-ahar-part-1-pit-estimates-of-homelessness-in-the-us.html [accessed: 6 September 2025].
International Trade Union Confederation (ITUC). 2025. Global Rights Index 2025. [Online] Available at: https://www.ituc-csi.org/ituc-global-rights-index-2025-en [accessed: 6 September 2025].
National Center for Education Statistics (NCES). 2024. High School Graduation Rates (ACGR 2021–22). [Online] Available at: https://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/indicator/coi/high-school-graduation-rates [accessed: 6 September 2025].
NCHS. 2025. Maternal Mortality Rates in the United States, 2021–2023. [Online] Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/hestat/maternal-mortality/2021-2023/maternal-mortality-2021-2023.htm [accessed: 6 September 2025].
OECD. 2023. PISA 2022 Results—United States (country note). [Online] Available at: https://www.oecd.org/pisa/publications/PISA2022_USA.pdf [accessed: 6 September 2025].
Social Security Administration (SSA). 2025. Social Security Programs Throughout the World—United States: Monthly Statistical Snapshot. [Online] Available at: https://www.ssa.gov/policy/docs/quickfacts/stat_snapshot/2025-07.html [accessed: 6 September 2025].
U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS). 2025a. The District of Columbia had the highest unemployment rate in July 2025 at 6.0 percent. [Online] Available at: https://www.bls.gov/opub/ted/2025/the-district-of-columbia-had-the-highest-unemployment-rate-in-july-2025-at-6-0-percent.htm [accessed: 6 September 2025].
U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS). 2025b. Union Members—2024, USDL-25-0105. [Online] Available at: https://www.bls.gov/news.release/union2.nr0.htm [accessed: 6 September 2025].
U.S. Department of Labor (DOL). 2025. Minimum Wage (federal overview). [Online] Available at: https://www.dol.gov/general/topic/wages/minimumwage [accessed: 6 September 2025].
U.S. DOL/ETA. 2025. Unemployment Insurance Data Dashboard. [Online] Available at: https://oui.doleta.gov/unemploy/DataDashboard.asp [accessed: 6 September 2025].
USDA Economic Research Service (ERS). 2024. Household Food Security in the United States in 2023, ERR-337. [Online] Available at: https://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/pub-details?pubid=109895 [accessed: 6 September 2025].
US Water Alliance/DigDeep. 2023. Closing the Water Access Gap in the United States: A National Action Plan. [Online] Available at: https://uswateralliance.org/resources/closing-the-water-access-gap-in-the-united-states-a-national-action-plan/ [accessed: 6 September 2025].
World Bank. 2024. Universal Health Coverage (UHC) Service Coverage Index (indicator SH.UHC.SRVS.CV.XD). [Online] Available at: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.UHC.SRVS.CV.XD [accessed: 6 September 2025].
20 COMPARATIVE OVERVIEW AND
SYNTHESIS
The G20 Socio-Economic Rights Barometer reveals a broad middle band of performance, with only a handful of countries approaching comprehensive realisation across all six socio-economic rights under analysis. High-income members such as Germany, Canada, Japan, and Australia tend to cluster in the upper range, reflecting robust legal frameworks and generally high levels of access. However, even these states show persistent gaps in equity, particularly for indigenous peoples, migrants, or low-income groups – keeping their scores below the maximum.
Upper-middle-income members like Brazil, Mexico, South Africa, and Türkiye demonstrate strong constitutional or legislative guarantees but uneven outcomes, often constrained by labour-market informality, regional disparities, or fiscal pressures. Their scores typically fall in the 2–3 range, signalling systems that exist in law but fail to deliver consistently in practice.
At the lower end, countries such as India, Indonesia, and Saudi Arabia record mid-range scores in education and health but serious shortfalls in housing, labour rights, or food security. Here, rapid population growth, economic volatility, or governance challenges undermine effective rights realisation despite significant policy commitments.
Across the G20, the most consistently strong domains are education and health, where enrolment and life expectancy have broadly improved. The most persistent deficits lie in housing, labour protections, and food security, where affordability crises, informality, and inequality cut across income groups.
Taken together, the Barometer highlights that the G20, while encompassing the world’s largest economies, has yet to translate its wealth into universal socio-economic rights enjoyment. Strong laws and institutions exist, but structural inequalities, governance gaps, and affordability pressures continue to limit equitable realisation.
21 TABULATED SCORES
Table 1: Right to Education
Table 2: Right to Health
Table 3: Right to Work & Decent Labour Conditions
Table 4: Right to Social Security
Table 5: Right to Housing
Table 6: Right to Food & Water
Table 7: Overall Score
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This report has been published by the Inclusive Society Institute
The Inclusive Society Institute (ISI) is an autonomous and independent institution that functions independently from any other entity. It is founded for the purpose of supporting and further deepening multi-party democracy. The ISI’s work is motivated by its desire to achieve non-racialism, non-sexism, social justice and cohesion, economic development and equality in South Africa, through a value system that embodies the social and national democratic principles associated with a developmental state. It recognises that a well-functioning democracy requires well-functioning political formations that are suitably equipped and capacitated. It further acknowledges that South Africa is inextricably linked to the ever transforming and interdependent global world, which necessitates international and multilateral cooperation. As such, the ISI also seeks to achieve its ideals at a global level through cooperation with like-minded parties and organs of civil society who share its basic values. In South Africa, ISI’s ideological positioning is aligned with that of the current ruling party and others in broader society with similar ideals.
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