US-Africa relations: The case of South Sudan

Occasional Paper 10/2025

Click here to read as PDF

Copyright © 2025

Inclusive Society Institute

PO Box 12609, Mill Street

Cape Town, 8010

South Africa

235-515 NPO

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means without the permission in writing from the Inclusive Society Institute.

D I S C L A I M E R

Views expressed in this report do not necessarily represent the views of the  Inclusive Society Institute or those of their respective Board or Council members.

OCTOBER 2025

Prof Melha Biel (PhD)

Principal of Bentiu University of Petroleum

& The Executive Director of the Institute for Strategic and Policy Studies

Abstract

South Sudan –United States Relations has been a history connected with missionaries and Christianity in the first place. During the 18^th century, western Christian missionaries came to Africa and the Sudan seeking to convert new believers into the community of believers. Many Sudanese were converted and became Christian. At the same time Christian teaching in form of Bible study was conducted among the believers. This led to translation of the Bible into African languages such as Nuer, Dinka, Bari, to mention a few.

Since the Christianization of South Sudan, the new country is religiously sub-divided into three zones, the northern part of South Sudan which is greater Upper Nile is dominated by Anglican Churches. While greater Bahr Al Ghazal by Catholic Churches and greater Equatoria by both Catholic and Protestants Churches.

Most of leaders of South Sudan were educated at the missionaries’ schools. Some managed to visit Schools in neighboring countries such as Uganda, Kenya, Congo or Zaire.

The development of Missionaries has also influenced the relationship between the South and the North of Sudan and has been one of the factors that led to succession of Southern Sudan in 2011.

According to the Pew –Templeton Global Religious Future Project report on South Sudan(2020), Christian make up of 60.5 % of the population, while African religion/Indigenous  followers come second are said to be 33%, whereas Muslims are 6%. There are other smaller groups that have emerged after the country got independent in 2011 and they are: Baha’I, Buddhism, Hinduism and Judaism.

In another hand, US is aware of the economic potential of South Sudan and was among the first country of the world to start exploration of minerals in the country. This led to the discovery of oil in 1999 in Bentiu, South Sudan. However, this discovery of oil and it subsequently production to Port Sudan led to intensification of Sudan conflict, where villages were forcefully removed from their home in the name of exploring oil(Moro 2019).

1. Introduction and Background

Since independence in 2011, South Sudan has been plagued by political and economic instability characterized by civil war and communal conflict. Post-independence political rivalries led to the outbreak of civil wars in December 2013 and July 2016 which formally ended in September 2018 with IGAD-mediated peace agreement. The 2018 Revitalized Agreement on the resolution of the conflict in the Republic of South Sudan (R-ARCSS) created a coalition government, the Revitalized Transitional Government of National Unity (RTGoNU), comprising five parties, namely the Incumbent Transitional Government of National Unity (ITGoNU), Sudan’s People Liberation Movement/Army (SPLM/A-OI), South Sudan Opposition Alliance (SSOA), Former Detainees and Others Political Parties. The RTGoNU is led by President Salva Kiir Mayardit deputized by First Vice President Riek Machar and Four Vice Presidents. However, some Opposition groups had reservations and declined to sign the R-ARCSS. Some of members of the holdout group are currently negotiating with the RTGoNU under the auspices of the Kenya-led Tumaini Initiative.

The 2018 R-ARCSS stipulated a 44-Month lifespan of implementation that is, 8 months Pre-Transitional Period and 36-month Transitional Period. Key tasks to be implemented include, inter alia, the following: unification of armed forces, including security sector reform/transformation; drafting a new constitution; conducting a population and housing census; socio-economic and governance reforms; transitional justice and national elections. The transition was envisaged to culminate in elections in December 2022 and terminate in February 2023, with an elected government in place. The R-ARCSS implementation has progressed over the years, albeit at a slow pace, uneven and often instrumental, substantially due to several factors, including funding constraints, insufficient trust and political will power.

By mid-2022, it was apparent that the transition would not be completed as envisaged. In August 2022, the R-ARCSS signatories convened a High-Level Committee (HLSC) comprised of senior party members and agreed to extend the transition by two years until February 2025 and adopted a Roadmap for completing outstanding tasks including the conduct of elections by December 2024.

In September 2024, the signatories further extended the transition by another two years until February 2027. According to an assessment by the HLSC, only 10% of the roadmap tasks, had been implemented as of August 2024, thus necessitating a further extension of the Transitional period to allow for the completion of the key elections-related tasks essential for the political transition. A harmonized implementation matrix is currently being developed by the HLSC.

Although progress has been quite slow and limited, it can be noted that in the first extension, the RTGoNU through the NCAC managed to review and enact several elections and security related legislation so as to align them to the R-ARCSS and imbue international best practice; these were the National elections Ac, Political Parties Act, the National Police service Act, Sudan People’s Liberation Army Act, the National Civil Defense Service, etc. RTGoNU has also enacted the constitution Making process Act, the commission for Truth, Reconciliation and Healing Act and the Compensation and Reparations Authority Act. In this period, it reconstituted election related institution such as the National Constitutional Review Commission (NCRC), the political Parties Council (PPC) and the national Elections Commission (NEC) which are all operational. It has, however, not been able to substantially fund them to enable them effectively to fulfill their mandates. In this period, the RTGoNU unified and graduated 55,000 forces and redeployed 8 brigades (about 6000forcrs) of the army components. It redeployed 3,000 forces of police components. Further through the security sector Strategic Review Board (SDSRD) it reviewed five critical security and defense policy frameworks, including the security Sector Transformation Roadmap. These policy documents await evaluation and adoption by the Executive.

The Republic of South Sudan was part and parcel of the Sudan until it became an independent country in July 2011 after many battles for succession. It has a population of about 12 million people, which made up of 64 ethnic group or tribes, each with unique culture and tradition. Politically, the country has Ten States and Three Administrative Areas. Historically, the country is subdivided into three provinces of Equatoria, Bahr Al- Ghazal and Upper Nile.

In August 1955 South Sudan military officers within the so-called Sudanese army forces rebel against the Government in Khartoum calling for autonomy within the United Sudan. According to them there was marginalization of Southern and religious persecution. This rebellion was brought to an end, when the government of Sudan under president Jaafar Mohamed Al Numerie accepted the calls for an Autonomy region, The Southern region with self-rule was established through what became known as Addis Ababa Agreement signed in March 1972. This follow with the formation of The High Executive Council (HEC) for Southern Sudan with base in Juba. The President of the High Executive Council has its own Ministers and other government Agencies and was in away powerful in term of managing resources within the region.

2. 1972 Peace Accord and the role US in supporting

the Anya -Anya Movement

The 1972 Accord between the South and North of Sudan would not been achieved without active involvement of the United States and it alliance. Here the role of Christian missionaries were paramount.

However, in May 1983, the same president Jaafar Mohamed Al Numerie who signed a n agreement for autonomy with the southern leaders decided to abrogate the Autonomy region of South Sudan and sat up a weaker administrative regions which have no  powers in compare to HEC. This decision led to the formation of Anya Anya Two and later to the formation of the SPLM/SPLA led by Col. Dr. John Garang De Mabior. The SPLM/M/SPLA fought the war of liberation from 1983 to 2005 and this war was brought to an end through the signing of the Comprehensive Peace Agreement, known as CPA in Nairobi Kenya. This following by a nationwide Referendum on succession of the South Sudan in 2010. The Vote was concluded with 99.8% in favor of separation from Sudan.

On the 9^th of July 2011 the country was declared independent and Sudan was the first country to recognize the new nation.

3. US-South Sudan Relations before and after

succession

The United States with moral support for the marginalized Christians of the Sudan has firmly decided to support Southern Sudanese in their fight for greater role within the Sudanese Muslim and Arabs dominated state. Since the August 1955 mutiny in Torit, South Sudan, various US related Agencies delivered humanitarian and moral support to the Christians in South Sudan(Yoh, 2018). The religion sat up, in the then Southern province has played a vital role in rising funds and guns for the Anya -Anya fighters against Khartoum Governments.

Through, countries which were alliance to the US, such as Israeli, military support came through them to the Anya -Anya rebels. The US support to the liberations fighters in the South slowdown, when SPLM/SPLA was consider communist oriented movement, due to its association with the then Ethopian ruling military government led by Mengistu Haile Mariam from 1969 to 19991. When Mengistu Regime was over through in 1991, the SPLM/SPLA has no option, but to seek realignment with the US and changed it course of policy towards the west rather than the Eastern power. Also the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991open a new opportunity for US to pressure the SPLM/SPLA to change it stands towards the US and it alliance. Step by Step, the US resumed supporting the SPLM/SPLA in the fight for a United Sudan of equal citizenship and religious freedom. The called for “a New Sudan on New bases” was attractive for the western countries and particularly among those who did not support separation between the North and the South. It was equally, appreciated by other marginalizes Sudanese such as the people from Blue Nile, Nuba  Mountains, and Some from Darfur and even from the far North.

Apart from the religion view point, the US has three vital objectives in supporting South Sudan for Statehoods or for a greater role within the New Sudan. Some of these are:

• Sudan is a bridge between Africa and Arab World. A strong leadership in South Sudan which is friendly to the United States could assist the US to curbed terrorism and Islamic fundamentalists which were percept using Sudan a center or base for their activities against western interest, particularly, the US as this was the case when an Islamic friendly government was in power in Sudan 1986-1990, many religious fundamentalists find their way to Khartoum.

• Osama Bin Laden, made Khartoum one of his Headquarters against the western establishment. A Number of embassies were bombed in Khartoum by the terrorist related group. In return, the US bombed Sudan Capital several times, killing a number of terrorists, but also innocent people.

• Sudan is one of richest country in central Africa. Having a US- friendly government in Khartoum was keys for securing US interest in the country and in Africa.

4. US-South Sudan Diplomatic relations in 2011

After successfully signing of the CPA, the US established a consular in the capital Juba on November 2005. After the independent, the United States administration under President Barack Obama declared the recognition of South Sudan as a Sovereign State. The Consular general established in 2005, was upgraded to an Embassy and the than Consular general Barrie Walkley was appointed to act as Charge’ d’ Affairs pending appointment of a permanent Ambassador. He therefore assumed the role of an Ambassador to South Sudan. This was follow by Susan D. Page who was confirmed as the country ambassador on 18^th October 2011.

5. Two year later after succession from Sudan and

US-South Sudan Diplomatic Relations.

The outbreak of civil war in Sudan and South Sudan 1983 to 2005 and later 2013 and 2016 has undermined the interest of the United States in South Sudan and Sudan. This is because, when the Oil was discovered by Chevron, the American Company in 1999, many civilian in the oil producing States in Southern Sudan were forcefully chase away by the Sudanese Army Forces and militia supporting the government. Many civilian were killed and forced to leave their villages without compensation to date. Public opinion in the US was against the exploration of the oil in the South. Chevron Oil Company was forced to sell their shares to other companies which were more or less not careful about human rights issues in their own countries. This is was one of the issues or setback for US interest in securing her interests in Sudan and South Sudan.

The second setback was the war within South Sudan where thousands of civilian were massacre in cold blood by their own fellow countrymen in name of tribe.

The two civil wars, rolled back South Sudan economically, socially, military and politically. Many countries, particularly from the west sanctioned South Sudan for the crimes committed by some security elements. Those supporting such sanctions including the US and the European Union.

The two civil wars have contributed towards worsen the relationship between the US and South Sudan to date. Currently, the US and it alliance do not support developmental activities in South Sudan, except humanitarian assistance. It is worth noted that the United States is the largest single donor in Sudan and South Sudan since 1983 to date. By 2005, US provided $5 billion in aid to the Sudan and Eastern Chad, majority of these assistances went to Southern Sudan by then. The US funds over 80% of the World Food Program ‘s Food aid in Sudan/South Sudan and part of Chad. That is 6.5 million people were beneficiary of this assistance.

5.1. According to the Report to Congress on South Sudan Policy

Section 6508(b) of The National Defense Authorization Act, 2023 Report on United States Policy Toward South Sudan a number of actions were taken toward South Sudan Government. Some of which were captured as below:

Consistent with section 6508(b) of the National Defense Authorization Act, 2022 (FY 2022 NDAA), the Department of State, in consultation with the United States Agency for International Development and other relevant federal departments and agencies, has submitted  report on United States Policy toward South Sudan.

This reports evaluated the development of South Sudan since independence in 2011.

According to the report, the country is still remains deeply fragile Nation beset by weak governance, Pervasive insecurity, fiscal mismanagement, and widespread corruption. As part of a whole of government approach to South Sudan, the United State is working to mitigate and prevent sub-national violence, protect human rights, better target U.S. assistance to communities in need, protect and defend civic space for civil Society, independent media, and peaceful, political voices, and hold the transitional government accountable to its commitments to manage the country’s natural resources transparently. As stated by the US, the goal of all those measures was and is to support the South Sudanese people’s demands for an inclusive transition and a peaceful, stable future. Some of the actions taken by US and it partners were:

• In mid-July, due to the failure of South Sudanese leaders to implement their commitments to bring peace to South Sudan and in close coordination with Congress, the US halted  financial support to the Reconstructed Joint Monitoring and Evaluation Commission (RJMEC) and Ceasefire and Transitional Security Arrangements Monitoring and Verification Mechanism (CTSAMVM).

• In September, joined by the UK, Norwegian, and EU partners, they did not support the two-year extension of the transitional government. At the time of our non-support, we expressed our concern that the Revitalized Transitional Government of National Unity (RTGoNU) chose not to take the necessary steps to implement the peace process. We jointly called upon the RTGoNU to immediately demonstrate significant progress towards implementation of the outstanding elements of the 2018 Revitalized Agreement on the Resolution of the Conflict in the Republic of South Sudan (R-ARCSS) and to expand political and civic space to ensure that the voices of the South Sudanese people, including those who hold opposing views, are consistently heard throughout the implementation of the roadmap

• In November, the US significantly reduced the waivers provided to South Sudan on its TIPTier3 designation and announced our opposition to international financial institution lending to the RTGoNU outside of lending or programs that support basic human needs.

• In February, working with partners, the US improved oversight mechanisms governing $ 114 million rapid credit facility from the international Monetary Fund, due to shared concerns over failures to abide by public financial management commitments in the R-ARCSS.

• In December, the US facilitated the travel of South Sudanese civil society activists to Washington for the U.S. -Africa Leaders Summit, where they met with summit participants including Under Secretary for Civilian Security Zeya to demonstrate the importance we place on elevating and engaging with non-governmental South Sudanese leaders. At the same time, the Department of State delivered a clear message to the Foreign Minister, who represented President Salva Kiir, about the need for action to address subnational violence, human rights violations, the lack of justice and accountability, and the lack progress towards bringing the transitional period to a successful conclusion.

Over the course of the past year, the US Embassy in Juba regularly engaged with religious leaders and the South Sudan Council of Churches to encourage a unified message among the various denominations and for the churches to engage communities in an effort to reduce subnational violence and increase civic participation in the political process.

The US Embassy in Juba in coordination with the Troika pressed senior RTGoNU officials to stop exploiting international humanitarian assistance for political gain, to protect humanitarian workers, and for unimpeded delivery of humanitarian assistance to communities including those most vulnerable to food insecurity.

In Washington and Juba, the US expanded it outreach and regularly engaged civil society actors and marginalized communities across a range of issues including human rights, subnational violence, and civic space.

These efforts came in the context of another year in South Sudan in which large parts of the population are internally displaced due to sub-national violence and natural disasters, including historic floods and drought. The U.S. commitment to addressing the humanitarian needs of South Sudanese population remained steadfast. In FY 2022, the United States continued to be the leading international donor to South Sudan, providing more than $993 million in humanitarian assistance. In 2022, an estimated 8.9 million South Sudanese (about 70 percent of the country’s population) needed some type of humanitarian assistance, with up to eight million facing crisis or worse levels of acute food insecurity, making South Sudan one of the most food-insecure countries in the world. Complicating U.S. efforts, South Sudan continues to be one of the most dangerous places for aid workers. In January and early February 2023, eight humanitarian workers were killed, compared to nine humanitarian workers killed in 2022 and five in 2021. Since the conflict began in 2013, over 150 humanitarians, predominantly South Sudanese, have lost their lives while providing assistance to people.

5.2. Political Factions Stifle Progress and Reform

The RTGoNU continued to fail to implement essential commitments under the R-ARCSS and has repeatedly failed to meet key milestones in a timely manner. The two-year extension of the RTGoNU President Kiir, announced on August 4, 2022, has further undermined confidence that Kiir’s government was committed to reform.

Political elites are deeply vested in maintaining a status quo that allows them to accumulate political power and economic resources at the expense of the people of South Sudan. Further, competition for political power and economic resources manifests in fighting between proxies, with political sub factions manipulating ethnic and communal tensions their advantage, often leading to violence, displacement, and grave human rights abuses. In 2022, violence in Unity, Upper Nile, and Jonglei States resulted in hundreds of civilians being killed and over 90,000 individuals displaced, homes and livelihoods were burned and destroyed, and horrifying sexual and gender-based violence, including against minors was reported.

5.3. Public Financial Management Reform Challenges

The government has not made significant progress implementing public financial management (PFM) reforms and has not yet met its commitment in the 2018 peace agreement to create a single treasury account to transparently manage its oil revenue. While the Ministry of Finance and Bank of South Sudan have attempted to consolidate government accounts, revenues remain dispersed in multiple locations and commercial accounts. Data on the Ministry of Finance’s website reported $ 1.6 billion in 2021-22 revenue generated by the country’s oil wealth. A lack of transparent accounting for oil revenues and loans collateralized with oil cargo facilitates significant revenue leakage and diversion by corrupt actors, undermining the already negligible financing of basic services for South Sudanese people. Transparency International ranked South Sudan 178 out of 180 countries in its 2022 Corruptions Perceptions Index.

5.4. Security Challenges

The UN Mission in South Sudan (UNMISS) documented 503 incidents of violence affecting Civilians between January 1^st  and September 30, 2022, including reported killings, injuries, abduction, and conflict-related Sexual Violence. Those implicated in fueling the conflict include local, state, and federal officials, and armed groups over which they have influence.

The RTGoNU established the necessary Unified Forces (NUF) with the initial graduation of the first batch of more than 20,000 troops from training on August 20, 2022. As of the end of January 2023, the NUF has yet to deploy from their cantonments, lack consistent payment of salaries, are not adequately funded, and the government has not provided information on how the NUF will be utilized to improve security throughout the country.

Escalating harassment, intimidation, and arbitrary arrest by national security and other government officials have had a chilling effect on civic spaces and caused many civil society and media actors to self-censor, resign, withdraw from peace process activities, and/or flee the country. In August 2021, security forces detained former Governor of Northern Bahr El Ghazal State Kuel Aguer Kuel for having signed a letter calling for peaceful protests to President Kiir to leave office. Aguer was held in detention for over a year without charges. On October 7, he was brought to court and charged with eight crimes, including attempt to overthrow a constitutional government by unconstitutional means. The U.S. Government engaged regularly in support of his release. On December 9, a three-judges of appellate court released Aguer from detention after unanimously dropping all eight charges brought against him by state prosecutors and deciding not to send his case to trial.

As recently as January 2023, several employees of government-owned South Sudan Broadcasting Cooperation were detained by members of the National Security Service in connection to a leaked video of President Kiir taken in December 2022. As a result of such instances of shrinking civic and political space, national-level civil society participation in peace agreement implementation has noticeably decreased over the last two years

5.5. Promoting Accountability 

On April 3, 2014, the United States established, through executive order (EO) 13664, a South Sudan sanctions program targeting those responsible for, inter alia, threatening the peace and stability undermining democratic processes, or expanding or extending the conflict in South Sudan.  Since the issuance of EO 13664, the Department of the Treasury has designated 13 individuals and six entities under that authority primarily for expanding or extending the conflict in South Sudan including by obstructing the reconciliation process or peace talks. The Department of the treasury has also designated six individuals and eight entities in South Sudan pursuant to E.O. 13818- Which implements and builds upon the global Magnitsky Human in Rights Accountability Act of 2017- for their roles in corruption or serious human Rights abuse. The United States will not hesitate to impose costs on those who perpetuate the conflict in South Sudan and will continue to apply pressure on the senior leadership of South Sudan to take concrete measures to bring peace and stability to the country.  State and Treasury officials regularly coordinate on international engagement regarding corruption in South Sudan’s oil sector.

5.6. U.S. Humanitarian and Development Assistance

The vast majority of U.S. assistance for South Sudan addresses humanitarian needs. Over 80 percent of U.S. assistance of South Sudan focuses on delivering humanitarian assistance to alleviate human suffering and prevent wholesale systemic collapse. State Department and USAID-managed bilateral assistance to South Sudan included $ 124 million in FY 2021 for targeted development interventions (including health services, PEPFAR, civil society support/conflict mitigation, education, agriculture, livelihoods, and youth programming) to build resilience against recurring shocks and reduce dependency on emergency assistance. Total USG humanitarian assistance for South Sudan in fiscal year 2022 was more than $993 million, including programming from USAID’s Bureau for Humanitarian Assistance and the state Department’s Bureau of Population, Refugees, and Migration. Additional development assistance was provided to the U.S. Institute of peace and Peace and other non-governmental organizations to analyze drivers of conflict and support efforts to meaningfully realize commitments made in R-ARCSS.

Health programs improve health and nutritional outcomes, strengthen state and county-level health service delivery, and enhance access to and sustainable management of water and sanitation systems that are critical to community health, and incorporate protection against gender-based violence and services for victims of sexual violence.

Economic growth programs foster sustainable livelihoods, improve agricultural practices and value chains, and promote sound public financial management. Youth and education programs support improved access to education for girls, marginalized, and hard-to-reach learners across South Sudan, and provide life skills and vocational training for at-risk youth.

• USAID’s democracy and governance activities support free and fair media, citizen engagement and oversight of the failures of the peace process by assisting civil society coalitions to promote transparency, conflict management, and advocacy for peace agreement implement. To promote broad citizen oversight of R-ARCSS implementation, USAID provides extensive support for independent media such as radio. USAID continues to finance networks of national and community broadcasters with over three million listeners, as radio remain an essential source of information in a country with high rates of illiteracy and dispersed rural population. USAID remains a staunched supporter of journalists and independent media and has distributed thousands of battery and solar powered radios among beneficiary populations.

5.7. UNMISS Activities

UNMISS-mandated core tasks are protection of civilians, including at the last remaining protection of Civilians camp in Malakal, Upper Nile State; creating conditions conductive to the delivery of humanitarian assistance; supporting the implementation of the R-ARCSS; and monitoring, investing, and reporting on violations of international humanitarian law and violations and abuses of human rights. Politicized subnational fighting continues and is increasingly making the UNMISS mandate both more difficult and critical. According to UN reports, an estimated 9.4 million people will need humanitarian assistance during 2023 and approximately 2.3 million people are internally displaced. Nearly 2.3 million South Sudanese are refugees or are seeking asylum. U.S.  efforts at the United Nations are focused on improving UNMISS’ performance of its protection of civilians’ mandate, and ensuring elections support is targeted to include effective contributions by civil society and non-governmental organizations in the constitutional drafting and elections oversight bodies called for in the 2018 peace agreement.

Despite support from the UN and pressure from the international community, the RTGoNU has made insufficient progress on transitional justice. In January 2021, the Minister of Justice was authorized to begin establishing the three transitional justice mechanisms called for in the R-ARCSS- the Hybrid Court for South Sudan (HCSS) to be established with the African Union, a Commission on Truth, Reconciliation and Healing (CTRH), a Compensation and Reparations Authority (CRA). There has been no progress on establishing the HCSS despite commitments by the RTGoNU and the African Union Commission (AUC) to work on the legal framework needed to establish the court. The state Department has repeatedly engaged the AUC on this issue and pressed the RTGoNU and other AU members states, especially members of the Intergovernmental Authority on Development, to maintain political focus on the commitments in the R-ARCSS support from the UN and the International community has expanded limited access to domestic accountability mechanisms. Launched in December 2022, South Sudan’s Gender Based Violence and Juvenile Court in Juba has been trying some perpetrators of gender-based crimes, including rape, and has successfully concluded multiple convictions.

Since 2017, the South Sudanese judiciary has supported mobile courts with the assistance of UNMISS, the UN Development Program, and other donors. These mobile courts hear criminal and civil cases in where access to justice is otherwise limited. In 2021, despite pandemic challenges, 15 Joint Special Mobile Courts operated throughout the country. The state Department supports long-term accountability efforts in South Sudan through funding human rights documentation designed to support transitional justice processes. The U.S. government consistently advocates for the Human Rights Council’s renewable of the Commission on Human Rights in South Sudan, including its evidence collection mandate, and supports continued human rights reporting by UNMISS and the UN Panel of Experts.

5.8. Barriers to Free and Fair Elections

South Sudan has not established the necessary preconditions for free and fair elections, evidenced by continued delays in establishing the legal frameworks, independent electoral institutions, and civic spaces to enable genuine political competition and democratic elections. This includes failure to date to enact and amend key legislation. Civil society, independent media, and political dissidents continue to face intimidation, harassment, and arrests by security services under the President’s command, which has forced many South Sudanese critical of the transitional government to flee the country. Critical outstanding tasks include, but are not limited to, the full establishment of an impartial and independent National Elections Commission and the drafting of a permanent constitution. RTGoNU officials report that legislation necessary to commence these tasks, including amendments to the Political Parties Act and the National Elections Act of 2012, and passage of the procedural law for drafting a permanent constitution, was approved by the Council of Ministers in 2021, and was only recently submitted to the legislature on February 14(see Report to Congress on South Sudan Policy Section 6508(b) of The National Defense Authorization Act, 2023 Report)

6. The current diplomatics relations between the two

countries

Diplomatics relations between US and South Sudan has worsening in the recently years. The US and it alliance are blaming South Sudan leadership for being corrupt, irresponsible towards it citizens and mismanaging of the resources, violations of human rights across the country. There is also issues to do with political will in regards to the implementation of the 2018 peace agreement that bought the civil wars to an end in 2018. While the government accused the US and it alliance of interference in the internal affairs and are lacking the will to support or recognized government efforts in peace building efforts.

Since Obama administration, the relationship between two countries has deteriorated. With Donald Trump taking over the White House in January 2025, it is highly expected that Juba and Washington will not be in a good term with South Sudan and that the situation might grow from bad to worse which we have not seen before.

It is worth noted that South Sudan was a small baby of the US. President Salva of South Sudan visit Washington D.C. in 2005, when he became the First Vice President of Sudan and the President of Southern Sudan where met President G.W. Bush in the White House, he was given an Honor in the form of a BLACK CAP, which he uses up to today.

7. Conclusion and Recommendations

As mentioned above, the relationship between the US and South Sudan has reached a bad stage and is expected to continue in the coming years. The political instability and economic crisis in South Sudan has contributed towards diplomatics row between the two countries. Issues such as human rights violations, corruption accusation against South Sudan have added fuel to the fire. It is not clear how the Trump administration in Washington will behave toward South Sudan leadership. However, it is clear that Africa in general under Donald Trump administrative is not going to be a priority. On another note, the Crisis in Sudan will add more pressure to the political, economic and social situation in South Sudan as the possible for oil shutdown is very high. The recently call in Nairobi, Kenya by opposition parties in Sudan to form a parallel government to that in Port Sudan is another critical development in Sudan crisis. Such development if not handled well by South Sudanese authority could harm the country economically and that a very serious consequences on the future stability in South Sudan.

8. Recommendations

United States-South Sudan relations is in a critical juncture as both countries are making less efforts to normal the situation. There is therefore the need for serious dialogue between the two countries with the purpose to understand each other and come up with the way forward. South Sudan should addressed alleged issues of human rights, corruption, peace implementation etc.

For the US, the country should deal with South Sudan with respect. Secondly, the new US administration should take Africa seriously.

References

Athorbei, Deng(2024). Local Government Administration in South Sudan

Breidlid, Anders/Said, Avelino(2010). South Sudan, A Concise History.

Daly, M.W./ Rolandsen, O.(2016). A History of South Sudan, From Slavery to Independence

Yoh, John Gai(2018).The Idea of South Sudan, The History of Political Though

Yates, Doughlas A.(2012). The Scramble for African Oil

Said, A./Breidlid, A.K.(2014). A Concise History of South Sudan

Nhema, Alfred/Zeleza, Paul T.(2008). The Resolution of African Conflicts.

Riak, Jacob D. Chol(2024). The Petroleum Industry of South Sudan.

Korbany, Lawrence(2018). South Sudan, the National Security Interest and Economic Bottlenecks

Riak, Jacob Dut(2024). The Petroleum Industry of South Sudan

El Hassan, Idris Salim(2008). Managing the Process of Conflict Resolution in the Sudan: In Nhema, Alfred at(ed.): The Resolution of African Conflicts

The Pew-Templeton Global Religious Futures Project report(2020).

Department of State Country Fact Sheet: South Sudan

Department of State Country Information: South Sudan

Korbandy, Lawrence(2018). South Sudan, the National Security Interest and the Economic Bottlenecks.

South Sudan: An Action(). Major Challenges Facing the South Sudan Economy.

Report to the Congress on South Sudan Policy, Section 6508(b) of the National Defense Authorization Act, 2023 Report on United States Policy Toward South Sudan.

Rolandsen, Oystein H./Daly,M.W.(2016). A History of South Sudan, from Slavery to Independence.

Clarkson, Angus(2011). Fools Rush In Where Angels Fear To Tread, Challenges for South Sudan and the International Community.

https://history.state.gov/countries/south-sudan

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

This report has been published by the Inclusive Society Institute

The Inclusive Society Institute (ISI) is an autonomous and independent institution that functions independently from any other entity. It is founded for the purpose of supporting and further deepening multi-party democracy. The ISI’s work is motivated by its desire to achieve non-racialism, non-sexism, social justice and cohesion, economic development and equality in South Africa, through a value system that embodies the social and national democratic principles associated with a developmental state. It recognises that a well-functioning democracy requires well-functioning political formations that are suitably equipped and capacitated. It further acknowledges that South Africa is inextricably linked to the ever transforming and interdependent global world, which necessitates international and multilateral cooperation. As such, the ISI also seeks to achieve its ideals at a global level through cooperation with like-minded parties and organs of civil society who share its basic values. In South Africa, ISI’s ideological positioning is aligned with that of the current ruling party and others in broader society with similar ideals.

Email: info@inclusivesociety.org.za

Phone: +27 (0) 21 201 1589

Web: www.inclusivesociety.org.za